. PATH of UPSC: AGRICULTURE

Agriculture , Animals, Plants SPECIES

GREEN MANURING

Are crops grown for the purpose of restoring or increasing the organic matter content in the soil.
Are low cost and effective technology in minimising cost of fertilizers and safe guarding productivity.
In 'Green Manuring' system the crop is grown in situ or brought from outside and incorporated when it is purposely grown.
It helps in as companion or succeeding crop and add or sustain organic matter in the soil.
It is associated with organic farming and can play an important role in sustainable annual cropping systems.
The plants used for green manure are :

a. Catch Crops : Legumes are inter-sown in standing crop before or after harvest, to utilize nitrates or the left over moisture.

b. Shade crops : Sown in young orchards with the objective of shading the soil surface and, preventing the rise of temperature. Otherwise tender roots of fruit plants may be affected by the high soil temperature.

In plantation like tea and coffee, Glyricidia is used as shade crop first and incorporated as green manure.

c. Cover crops : Green manure crops grown with the objective of clothing the surface with a vegetative cover, especially in hill slopes during the rainy season to avoid soil erosion and run off.

Cover crop is a crop planted primarily to manage soil erosion, soil fertility, soil quality, water, weeds, pests, diseases, biodiversity and wildlife in an agroecosystem.

d. Forage crops : Legume are grown for taking cutting of green fodder for cattle in early stages and later as GM.

Pillipesara seeds can be broadcasted in the standing rice crop (3-5 days before harvest).

List of Cereal Crops : Rice, Wheat, bread wheat ,Durum wheat, macaroni wheat, Corn or maize , Job's Tears, salay, adlay, tigbe, pawas

,Barley , Millet ,Sorghum , Oat ,Rye ,Triticale ,Teff, taf ,Fonio ,Wild rice, Canada rice, Indian rice, water oats , Spelt ,Canary grass

Millet is known as ragi and mandia in the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh and offers both nutritional and livelihood security for human beings and also feed security for diverse livestock populations in dryland regions of rural India.

Leg Hb
: Leghaemoglobin is an oxygen carrier and hemoprotein found in the nitrogen-fixing root nodules of leguminous plants.

Green Revolution

Norman Borlaug : "Father of the Green Revolution" received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 as He is credited with saving over a billion people from starvation
Father of Agro climatology : Wladimir Koppen developed the first climate classification system based on temperature, rainfall and vegetation. It distinguished five general climate types: tropical rainy, dry, warm temperate, cold forested and polar. The basic philosophy of his system is still used widely today.
“Green Revolution” was coined by William Gaud whilst Director of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). He was describing the spectacular increases in cereal crop yields that were achieved in developing countries during the 1960s.
HYV or semi-dwarf varieties ( I ) developed at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) in Mexico and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in the Philippines.
The Rockefeller Foundation (RF)’s Mexican Agriculture Program (MAP), which operated from 1943 to 1965, is now credited with launching the global transformation known as the “Green Revolution.”

HYVs High-yielding varieties of agricultural crops are usually characterized by a combination of the following traits in contrast to the conventional varieties:

higher crop yield per area (hectare)
dwarfness
improved response to fertilizers
high reliance on irrigation and fertilizers - intensive farming
early maturation

HYVs can be found among wheat, corn, soybean, rice, potato, and cotton.
HYVs become popular in the 1960s and play an important role in the green revolution.

TYPE of SEEDS

[x]Breeder Seeds are produced by ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research.

[x]Foundation and Certified Seeds are produced by NSC National Seed Corporation (Miniratna).

The foundation and certified seeds can be multiplied at stage 1 and II, but the reproduction can not exceed 3 generations after breeder seed.

Nuclear seed :

100% genetically pure seed with physical purity and produced by the original breeder/Institute /State Agriculture University (SAU) from basic nucleus seed stock.
A pedigree certificate is issued by the producing breeder.

Breeder seed :

The progeny of nucleus seed multiplied in large area as per indent of Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (DOAC), Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, under supervision of plant breeder / institute / SAUs and monitored by a committee consisting of the representatives of state seed certification agency, national / state seed corporations, ICAR nominee and concerned breeder.
This is also 100% physical and genetic pure seed for production of foundation seed.
A golden yellow colour certificate is issued for this category of seed by the producing breeder.

Foundation seed :

The progeny of breeder seed produced by recognized seed producing agencies in public and private sector, under supervision of seed certification agencies in such a way that its quality is maintained according to prescribed field ad seed standards.
A white colour certificate is issued for foundation seed by seed certification agencies.

Registered seed :

Registered seed shall be the progeny of foundation seed that is so handled as to maintain its genetic identity and purity according to standard specified for the particular crop being certified.
A purple colour certificate is issued for this category of seed.

Certified seed :

The progeny of foundation seed produced by registered seed growers under supervision of seed certification agencies to maintain the seed quality as per minimum seed certification standards.
A blue colour certificate is issued by seed certification agency for this category of seed.

Castor seed plants

It is one of the sturdiest plants that can grow in areas where the soil is highly polluted, including areas of mining.
Castor is indigenous to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India.
It is a popular medicine as well as used in cosmetics.
Castor seed is the source of castor oil, which has a wide variety of uses.
The seeds contain between 40% and 60% oil that is rich in triglycerides, mainly ricinolein. The acid and its derivatives, inhibits many microbes, whether viral, bacterial or fungal.
The use of castor bean oil ("eranda") in India has been documented since 2000 BC in lamps and in local medicine as a laxative, purgative, and cathartic in Unani, Ayurvedic, siddha and other ethnomedical systems.

Plant quarantine is a technique for ensuring disease- and pest-free plants, whereby a plant is isolated while tests are performed to detect the presence of a problem. It is crucial to prevent the introduction of non-indigenous, potentially damaging pests and diseases of plants into a country or to eradicate them before they can become widespread and well established.

Type of Plants :

When soil very wet

Hydrophytes -- Submerged Plants and Floating Plants(fixed and free floating)
Helophytes -- Amphibious Plants
Epiphytes -- Air Plants or Tree Dwellers -- Bromyliads

When soil physically Dry

Halophytes -- Salt Loving -- Coconut, Cashew, Jack fruit, Tamarind
Oxylophytes : Due to acidic soil , there is less water available for the plants
Psychrophytes : Due to less soil temperature , Less water is required for the plants

when soil has less water retention ability

Xerophytes -- grow in sand or desert like Cactus, oliv, pineapple, Euphorbia, Agave etc.

Lithophytes -- grow on Stone -- Orchids
Psammophytes -- grow in sand
Chersophytes -- grow in useless hard soil

Metallophytes (Metal tolerant) --- Grow in presence of Metal --Myristica laurifolia, Walsura monophylla, Rinorea bengalusis

Mesophytes -- moist–loving Plant -- Terrestrial plants -- Crops/Common fruits/vegetables, Corn
Neutrophilus/Neutrophiles : Can bear both acidic and basic medium
Heliophytes -- Sun loving -- Coconut, Mango, Sugercane, Corn
Parasitic -- survive due to other plants like Amarbel (cascuta) , Rafflesia, Corallorhiza , Loranthus , belenphora , Orobanche
Phreatophytes -- long roots in search of Water
Saprophytes -- getting foods from dead plants and organic matters
Sciophytes -- Shade loving Plants like Fern, Horsetail, Club moss, Piper nigrum , Capsium

Kharif Crops : means Autumn

Jowar, Rice (paddy and deepwater), Millet, Maize (corn), Soyabean, Turmeric, Groundnut, Cotton, Sugarcane, Bitter Gourd, Linseed (flax), GreenGram (moong), Sesame (till), Arhar (tur), Black Gram (urad), Cowpea (chavala)

—> RICE:

The optimum temperature for rice cultivation is between 25°C and 35°C.
In Rice, pollen viability and production declines as daytime maximum temperature exceeds 33 °C and ceases when maximum temperature exceeds 40 °C.
Fertile climate and water holding capacity soil
Alluvial Soil and more than 100 cm rain
In India

43% of total food grain production
After China , India stands at 2nd in rice production
Top Rice producers states (WB , UP , PB)
UP has most areas under paddy cultivation

Main Varieties of Rice : Jaya, Saket, pusa, sugandha, kaveri, govind, mahi, ratna, sarju, purab-33, luni Sri

SRI System of Rice Intensification :

It supports reduced and controlled water application as one of its principles.
Other principles are early, quick and healthy plant establishment (transplantation);
reduced plant density and improved soil conditions through enrichment with organic matter.

Based on these principles, farmers can adapt recommended SRI practices to respond to their agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions.

SRI principles and practices have been adapted for rainfed rice as well as for other crops (such as wheat, sugarcane and tef, among others), with yield increases and associated economic benefits.

CH4 gas is released from paddy fields.

—> Maize is rainfed crop which is predominantly grown during Kharif season. It is an important cereal grown in India after rice and wheat. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh , Maharashtra, Rajasthan , Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh etc are the leading producers.

—> Groundnut : Major Growing States are Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra ,Rajasthan, MP, Orissa & UP.

India is the second largest producer of groundnuts in the world after China(1st).

Groundnut is the major oil seed crop in India and it plays a major role in bridging the vegetable oil deficit in the country. Groundnuts in India are available throughout the year due to a two-crop cycle harvested in March and October. Ground Nuts are important protein crops in India grown mostly under rain-fed conditions.

Rainfed agriculture : farming practices that rely on rainfall for water. It provides much of the food consumed by poor communities in developing countries.

Rabi Crops : means Spring

Cereals —> Wheat (Triticum aestvium), oat (Avena sativa), barley
Seed Plants —-> alfalfa (Lucerne, Medicago sativa), linseed, cumin (Cuminum cyminum), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), mustard (Brassica juncea), fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum), isabgol (Plantago ovata)
Vegetables —> Carrot, chickpea (Gram, Cicer arientinum), Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), Onion (Allium cepa), Potato (Solanum tuberosum)

—>Wheat

is known as the "King of Cereals"
crops of temperate climate , fertile sandy soils , 10 to 15 degree temp & 50 cm annual rain (75-100 cm)
good production in fertile loamy & clayey soil in plains area
Ideal Temp for Sowing : 10 to 15 degree temp
Temp for harvesting : 21 to 26 degree temp
Highly mechanised oriented and less labour
In India

Top 3 producers - UP , PB , Haryana
After China, India stands at 2nd worldwide
After Rice , it is 2nd most imp crop of India
Main Crops : Lerma Rojo, sonara 64, maikRani, VL-829, HS-420, HS-355

Zaid Crops :

grown on irrigated lands which do not have to wait for monsoons
short duration between Rabi and Kharif crop season, mainly from March to June
They require warm dry weather for major growth period and longer day length for flowering.
The main produce are seasonal fruits and vegetables like Cucumber, Musk melon, Water melon, Bitter guard, Pumpkin

SOILS in India :

Alluvial soil :

Found in satluj Ganga Brahmaputra plains and in the river deltas of East coast West coast and some river valleys of Peninsular
As depositional soils transported by the streams and winds
They are grey to Ash grey and texture is Sandy to silty loam
Contains calcareous concentrations known as Kankars
Most fertile soils supporting crops like cereals and pulses
Commerce apps like cotton sugarcane jute
Deficient in Potash
Rich in humus phosphoric acid and organic matter
Is soil can be divided into

(1) khadar soil: Low lying, frequently in undated by floods during rainy season, enriched by fresh silt deposits every year sandy and in dry areas exhibits saline and alkaline efflorescence locally known as Reh , kallar , thur
(2) bhangar soil : Above flood level, well drained, dryer then Khadar

Black soil

is also called Regur soil is extensively found over Deccan plateau and Malwa plateau.
Spread over Maharashtra , parts of Karnataka, Tamilnadu , Andhra Pradesh, MP & Gujarat.
It is known for cultivation for cotton, sugarcane, cereals, pulses and oilseeds.
It has the highest moisture holding capacity.
It has found in around 16.65% of total area in India.
Deficient in organic content, nitrogen, Phosphorus, potassium
Rich in iron, lime, potosh, aluminium and magnesium

known as Black cotton soils and have appearance from Black to grey
Get their colour from and admixture of humus and black constituents from Rocky materials
Derived from two types of rocks basaltic Deccan and Rajmahal traps and Ferruginous (Iron containing) Gneisses and schists in Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh.
Very clayey and highly retentive of water
Suitable for dryland farming because of high clay content
During the dry season the black soils shrink and develop crack into which loose ends particles fall down
This process is called self ploughing
Deep and rich fertile in lowlands but of poor fertility in a plants

Red soil :

Found in Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Konkan Eastern Madhya Pradesh South Bihar western Odisha and North Eastern mountains
Derived from weathering of old crystalline and metamorphic rocks under try condition
Red due to presence of iron oxide and look yellow when occurring in hydrated form new in nature love me or Sandy
Low water retention capacity
Deep and fertile in lowlands
Poor and thin in the uplands
Lowlands red soil are found along with black soil
Poor in nitrogen phosphorus potassium and organic matter

LATERITE SOILS in Western Ghats

It is developed in areas with high temperature and high rainfall.
These are the result of intense leaching due to tropical rains. With rain, lime and silica are leached away and soils rich in iron oxide & aluminium compound are left behind.
Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrives well in high temperature.
These soils are poor in organic matter NPCa i.e. Nitrogen, Phosphate and Calcium, while iron oxide FeO & K potash are in excess.
Hence, laterites are NOT suitable for cultivation; however, application of manures and fertilisers are required for making the soils fertile for cultivation.
Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like Cashew nut.
It is having heavy seasonal rainfall which promotes leaching of the soil
Leaching means downward movement of water comprising of dissolved organic and inorganic matter
Laterite soil is rich in iron oxide and Aluminium
Useful for plantation crops like tea and coffee
Used for making bricks
It is developed in high altitude areas of Peninsular plateau like Western Ghats, coastal Bengal, Eastern Ghats, areas of high rainfall in North East and Bihar

Shifting cultivation - a piece of land is used for quite some years until the fertility is dropped. After that the farmers move to the new plots. It is practiced by tribal and also known as Slash & Burn cultivation. It is known as

Jhoom in Assam
Jhumming - North-East India
Onam in Kerala
Podu or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh
‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha
‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats
‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern Rajasthan
‘Khil’ in the Himalayan belt
‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand
Bewar or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh
Milpa - Mexico & Central America
Roca - Brazil
Ladang - Malaysia & Indonesia
‘Conuco’ in Venzuela
‘Masole’ in Central Africa
‘Ray’ in Vietnam

Monoculture is a typical characteristics of Commercial grain farming.
Agronomy is a branch of Agriculture that deals with Principles and practice of crop production. Agronomy is the branch of agriculture sciences dealing with principles and practices of crop production and field management. Agronomy is mainly based on following basic principles Agrometerology, Soils and Tillage, Soil and Water Conservation, Dry-land Agriculture, Mineral Nutrition of Plants, Manures and Fertilizers, Irrigation Water Management, Weed Management, Cropping and Farming Systems, Sustainable Agriculture.

Silviculture : the growing and cultivation of trees. It pertains to the raising, development, care, reproduction and overall management of forest crops.

Adoption of High Yielding Variety Programme in Indian Agriculture started in 1966.
Cropping pattern makes a case for intensive, modern farming.

Plant micronutrient is - Boron.

Type of Tillages :

Primary Tillage : deep ploughing, subsoiling and year-round tillage

Deep Tillage :

Deep ploughing turns out large sized clods to get baked by the hot sun in summer.
These clods crumble due to alternate heating and cooling and due to occasional summer showers.
This process of gradual disintegration of clods improves soil structure.
The rhizomes and tubers of perennial weeds (world's problematic weeds viz., Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus rotundus) die due to exposure to hot sun.
Summer deep ploughing kills pests due to exposure of pupae to hot sun.
A deep tillage of 25-30 cm depth is necessary for deep rooted crop like pigeon pea
While moderate deep tillage of 15-20 cm is required for maize.
Deep tillage also improves soil moisture content. However the advantage of deep tillage in dry farming condition depends on rainfall pattern and crop.
It is advisable to go for deep ploughing only for long duration, deep rooted crops. \
Depth of ploughing should be related to the amount of rainfall that it can wet.

Subsoiling

Hard pans may be present in the soil which restrict root growth of crops. These may be silt pans, iron or aluminium pans, clay pans or -man-made pans.
Man-made pans are tillage pans induced by repeated tillage at the same depth. Root growth of crops is confined to top few centimetres of soil where deep penetration of roots is inhibited by hard pans.
For example, cotton roots grow to a depth of 200 cm in deep alluvial soil without any pans.
When hard pans are present, they grow only up to hard pan, say 15-20 cm. Similarly, vertical root growth of sugarcane is restricted due to hard pans and it is not compensated by horizontal spread.
Subsoiling is breaking the hard pan without inversion and with less disturbance of top soil.
A narrow cut is made in the top soil while share of the subsoiler shatters hard pans.
Chisel ploughs are also used to break hard pans present even at 60-70 cm.
The effect of subsoiling does not last long.
To avoid closing of subsoil furrow, vertical mulching is adopted.

Year-round Tillage

Tillage operations carried out throughout the year are known as year-round tillage.
In dry farming regions, field preparation is initiated with the help of summer showers. Repeated tillage operations are carried out until sowing of the crop.
Even after harvest of the crop, the field is repeatedly ploughed or harrowed to avoid weed growth in the off season.

Secondary Tillage

Lighter or finer operations performed on the soil after primary tillage are known as secondary tillage.
After ploughing, the fields are left with large clods with some weeds and stubbles partially uprooted.
Harrowing is done to a shallow depth to crush the clods and to uproot the remaining weeds and stubbles.
Disc harrows, cultivators, blade harrows etc. are used for this purpose.
Secondary tillage operations are generally done on the surface soil. They do not cause much soil inversion and shifting of soil from one place to other. They consume less power per unit area compared to primary tillage operations. The main objectives of secondary tillage is to break the big clods and make the soil surface uniform and levelled as needed for a seed bed.

Layout of Seedbed and Sowing

After the seedbed preparation, the field is laid out properly for irrigation and sowing or planting seedlings. These operations are crop specific. For most of the crops like wheat, soybean, pearl millet, groundnut, castor etc., fIat levelled seedbed is prepared. After the secondary tillage, these crops are sown without any land treatments. However, growing crops during rainy season in deep black soils is a problem due to ill-drained conditions and as tillage is not possible during the rainy season. Broadbed and furrows (BBF) are, therefore, formed before the onset of monsoon and dry sowing is resorted to.

For some crops like maize, vegetables etc., the field has to be laid out into ridges and furrows. Sugarcane is planted in the furrows or trenches. Crops like tobacco, tomato, chillies are planted with equal inter and intra-row spacing so as to facilitate two-way intercultivation. After field preparation, a marker is run in both the directions. The seedlings are transplanted at the intercepts.

Transplanting consists of preparing seedlings in nursery and then planting these seedlings in the prepared main field. Transplanting ensures a uniform plant stand and gives the rice crop a head start over emerging weeds.
Rice , Maize are sowed with transplantation.

Minimum Tillage Or No Tillage (Zero tillage) Concept In Rainfed Farming: Tillage may be defined as the practice of modifying the state of soil in order to provide conditions favorable for plant growth. Minimum tillage is a soil conservation system like Strip-till with the goal of minimum soil manipulation necessary for a successful crop production. It is a tillage method that does not turn the soil over. It is contrary to intensive tillage, which changes the soil structure using ploughs. It was evolved first in USA.

Top 12 Types of Cropping System

Mixed Farming : Farming on a particular farm which includes crop production, raising livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to sustain and safety as many needs of the farmer as possible. The objective is subsistence while higher profitability without altering ecological balance.

Ratooning : One of the important methods of intensive cropping, allowing the stubbles of the original crop to strike again after harvesting and to raise another crop. Ratooning is a practice of growing a crop from the stubbles of previous crop. best example : Sugarcane

Live Mulch System : involves planting a food crop directly into a living cover of an established cover crop without tillage or the destruction of the fallow vegetation. As cover crop It is interplanted or under sown with a main crop and intended to serve the purposes of a mulch, such as weed suppression and regulation of soil temperature.

Mixed Cropping : Growing of two or more crops simultaneously and intermingled without row arrangements, where there is significant amount of intercrop competition.

Sole(Alone) Cropping/Solid Planting : Unlike Intercropping “One crop variety grown alone in pure stands at normal density in a field”.

Monoculture: The repetitive growing of the same sole crop on the same land.

Multiple Cropping : “The growing of more than one crop on the same land in one year” Such as

(a) Intercropping : “Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in alternate rows or otherwise in the same area, where there is significant amount of inter crop competition”.
(b) Mixed cropping : Cultivation of two or more than two crops simultaneously, on the same piece of land without any definite row pattern or fixed ratio.
(c) Sequential/non-overlapped cropping : Growing of two or more crops in quick succession on the same piece of land in a farming year. Just after the harvest of Maize Potato is sown and just after digging of potato. Chili is sown.
(d) Relay/overlapped cropping : interring planting or inter sowing of seeds/seedlings of the succeeding crop before harvesting the preceding/maturing crop. 2nd crop is planted after the first crop has reach its reproductive stage of growth.

Multi-storeyed/Multitired/Multilevel Cropping : Two or more than two crops of different heights cultivated simultaneously on the same field. It is generally practiced in Karnataka and Kerala e.g. Sugarcane + Mustard + Onion/Potato.

Parallel Cropping : Such crops have different growth habits and zero competition to each other. e.g. Urd/Moong + Maize

Companion Cropping : When the production of both inters crops is equal to that of its solid planting. e.g. Mustard/Potato/Onion + Sugarcane

Synergetic Cropping : In this type of cropping, yield of both the crops are higher than their pure crops on unit area e.g. Sugarcane + Potato

Cropping Index :The number of crops grown per annum on a given area of land multiplied by hundred.

Land Equivalent Ratio : Ratio of the area needed under sole cropping to one of intercropping at the same management level to give an equal amount to yield. LER is the sum of the fractions of the yield of the intercrops, relative to their sole crop yields. Intercropping system accepts advantageous, when LER is more than 1.0.

Agroforestry is a land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around or among crops or pastureland.

Its Environmental benefits are

Reduction of pressure on natural forests
More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees on the site as crop roots do not reach as deep in the soil as that of trees, and often the top soil is bereft of nutrients
Better protection of ecological systems
Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion through impeding effect of tree roots and stems on these processes
Improvement of microclimate, such as lowering of soil surface temperature and reduction of evaporation of soil moisture through a combination of mulching and shading
Increment in soil nutrients through addition and decomposition of litter-fall.
Improvement of soil structure through the constant addition of organic matter from decomposed litter. (Humus)

Seed Dormancy(in sleep) :

Seed dormancy is defined as a state in which seeds are prevented from germinating even under environmental conditions normally favourable for germination. These conditions are a complex combination of water, light, temperature, gasses, mechanical restrictions, seed coats, and hormone structures.
It is delaying mechanism which prevents germination under conditions which might prove to be unsuitable for establishment. As long as the seed remains viable the possibility exists that it may eventually find itself more favourably placed.
The seed with dormancy is termed as dormant seed.
Harper (1977) recognizes three types of seed dormancy depending on the how each of them arises: viz., innate, enforced and induced.

True dormancy or Innate dormancy is caused by conditions within the seed that prevent germination under normally ideal conditions. It is incapable of germination when freshly dispersed even if conditions suitable for seedling growth are supplied. This inability to germinate may be due in certain species to the embryo being immature at the time of dispersal.

However The presence of innate dormancy can usually be interpreted as an adaptation either for staggering germination.

Enforced dormancy : When the seed is simply being deprived of its requirements for germination. For example, by the absence of sufficient moisture, oxygen, light or a suitable temperature. Seeds lying deep in the soil are probably prevented from germination by a lack of oxygen.

Induced dormancy : caused by the unfavourable conditions. In many species newly dispersed seeds have no innate dormancy, but if they fail to meet suitable conditions for germination, they acquire an induced (or secondary) dormancy.

Polygonum persicaria exhibits all 3 types of dormancy in the field during its first year after dispersal.

‘Sabarmati' and 'Jamuna' are two new varieties of RICE.
HD 2967 is the new high yielding variety of WHEAT.
White rust is an important fungal disease of MUSTURD.
ICAR has identified 3 Bt cotton varieties for cultivation in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan which were developed by Punjab Agricultural University in Ludhiana recently.

1) PAU Bt 1

2) F1861

3) RS2013

Minimum Support Price for Foodgrains was introduced in 1964.

Restorative crops are crops that help in maintaining the fertility of the soil, for example, pulses and legumes.

Leguminous green manures

Sesbania
Dhaincha —> The green manure crops contains highest amount of Nitrogen.
Sunhemp
Wild Indigo
Pillipesara
Cowpea
Cluster bean (Guar)
Green gram (Mung bean)
Berseem
Madras Indigo

Use of legume green manure crops

Short duration, fast growing, high nutrient accumulation ability
Tolerance to shade; flood, drought and adverse temperatures.
Wide ecological adaptability
Efficiency in use of water
Early onset of biological nitrogen fixation
High Nitrogen accumulation rates
Timely release of nutrients
Photoperiod insensitivity
High seed production and viability
Ease in incorporation
Ability to cross-inoculate or responsive to inoculation
Pest and disease resistant
High Nitrogen sink in underground plant parts

Crops suitable for green manuring are divided into two groups:

• Non-legumes or Non-leguminous crops: The non-legumes used as green manuring crops provide only organic matter to the soil. The

non-legumes are used for green manuring to a limited extent. For Examples: Mustard, Wheat, Carrot, Jowar, Maize, Sunflower etc

• Legumes or Leguminous Crops: The legumes used as green manuring crops provide nitrogen as well as organic matter to the soils. Legumes have the ability of acquiring nitrogen from the air with the help of its nodule bacteria. The legumes are most commonly used as green manuring crops. For Examples : Sannhemp, Djainach, Mung, Cowpea, Lentil, Senji, Berseem, Guar.

Sorghum is called “Camel of crops”. It has earned this name because of its ability to grow in arid soils and withstand prolonged droughts.

GUAR GUM :

Hydraulic fracturing under Shale oil and gas extraction industries consume about 90% of guar gum produced from India and Pakistan.
also used in textile and paper industries as well as the main ingredient in some bulk-forming laxatives.
It is primarily the ground endosperm of guar beans. The guar seeds are de-husked, milled and screened to obtain the guar gum.
In India, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana are the main producing regions.
Fracturing fluids normally consist of many additives that serve two main purposes, firstly to enhance fracture creation and propellant carrying capability and secondly to minimize formation damage.
In dairy products, it thickens milk, yogurt and liquid cheese products, and helps maintain homogeneity and texture of ice creams and sherbets. It is used for similar purposes in plant milks.
Guar gum, as a water-soluble fiber, acts as a bulk-forming laxative, so is claimed to be effective in promoting regular bowel movements and relieving constipation and chronic related functional bowel ailments.
Guar is a rain-fed legume crop whose processed gum is used in the food and fracking industry.
India accounts for 80-85% of the total global guar production.

Guar bean is the source of Guar gum.

Very valuable plant within a crop rotation cycle, as it lives in symbiosis with nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
In semi-arid regions of Rajasthan follow crop-rotation and use guar as a source to replenish the soil with essential fertilizers and nitrogen fixation, before the next crop.
Guar is very drought-tolerant and sun-loving, but it is very susceptible to frost.
It requires sufficient soil moisture before planting and during maturation of seeds.
Also produced near to coastal areas in the Gandhidham region of Kutch, Gujarat.

NOTE : Finance Minister, Shri Arun Jaitley recently launched the country’s First Agri-commodity Options Contracts in Guar Seed.

Mix LIME within soil of fields while farming :

Acidic soils create production problems by limiting the availability of some essential plant nutrients and increasing that of the soil solution's toxic elements, such as Al and Mn, the major cause of poor crop performance and failure in acidic soils.
Soil acidity can be corrected easily by liming the soil, or adding basic materials to neutralize the acid present.
The most commonly used liming material is agricultural limestone, the most economical and relatively easy to manage source.
The limestone is not very water-soluble, making it easy to handle.
As lime dissolves in the soil, calcium (Ca) moves to the surface of soil particles, replacing the acidity.
The acidity reacts with the carbonate (CO3) to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The result is a soil that is less acidic (has a higher pH).

Agronomy is a branch of agricultural science which deals with principles and practices of soil, water and crop management. It deals with methods which provide favourable environment to the crop for higher productivity.

Watershed management is a term used to describe the process of implementing land use practices and water management practices to protect and improve the quality of the water and other natural resources within a watershed by managing the use of those land and water resources in a comprehensive manner.

Pedology : Scientific Study of Soil

FIRST Livestock census is mainly conducted for the purpose of measuring the livestock population in the country and it helps in developing schemes for animal husbandry in the country. The first Livestock Census was conducted during the year 1919-1920.

Bioremediation

a process used to treat contaminated media, including water, soil and subsurface material, by altering environmental conditions to stimulate growth of microorganisms and degrade the target pollutants.
Biological treatment is a similar approach used to treat wastes including wastewater, industrial waste and solid waste.
Species of Pseudomonas, Mycobacterium, Haemophilus, Rhodococcus, Paenibacillus and Ralstonia are some of the most extensively studied bacteria for their bioremediation capability.
Bioremediation related technologies are phytoremediation, mycoremediation, bioventing, bioleaching, landfarming, bioreactor, composting, bioaugmentation, rhizofiltration, and biostimulation.

Bacteria are widely diverse organisms, and thus make excellent players in biodegradation and bioremediation. There are few universal toxins to bacteria, so there is likely an organism able to break down any given substrate, when provided with the right conditions (anaerobic versus aerobic environment, sufficient electron donors or acceptors, etc.).

Fast development of molecular microbiological tool has enabled the identification of many un- culturable microbes and therefore extended the list of microbial species with petroleum hydrocarbon degrading abilities.

SuperBug : multi resistant bacterium that carries several resistance genes and are resistant to multiple antibiotics and are able to survive even after exposure to one or more antibiotics.

Resistance arises through one of three ways: natural resistance in certain types of bacteria, genetic mutation, or by one species acquiring resistance from another.

Antibiotics- Odilorhabdins or ODLs :

are produced by symbiotic bacteria found in soil-dwelling nematode worms that colonise insects for food.
The bacteria help to kill the insect, and secrete the antibiotic to keep competing bacteria away.
Odilorhabdins is unique and promising on two fronts: its unconventional source and its distinct way of killing bacteria,

ODLs act on the ribosome — the molecular machine that makes proteins cells needed to function — of bacterial cells. When bound to the ribosome, the antibiotic disrupts its ability to interpret and translate genetic code.
When ODLs are introduced to the bacterial cells, they impact the reading ability of the ribosome and cause the ribosome to make mistakes when it creates new proteins,” said Mankin. “This miscoding corrupts the cell with flawed proteins and causes the bacterial cell to die.

Researchers have discovered a new class of antibiotics, which they have named Malacidins, which can be extracted from soil bacteria that are notoriously difficult to culture in labs and study. Malacidins may be able to attack and can kill several stubborn infections, including superbug dreaded MRSA(methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and many types of super bugs. The new antibiotics fought off many common infections in lab and mice tests, eliminating some microbes that have become resistant to existing antibiotics.

Malacidins are a class of chemicals made by bacteria found in soil and dirt that can kill Gram-positive bacteria. They are capable of killing off several antibiotic - resistant pathogens. Their activity appears to be dependent on calcium and appears to be non-toxic in humans The discovery of malacidins was published in 2018. The Malacidin family were discovered using a new method of soil microbiome screening that does not require cell.

Differences between ‘Upland’ and ‘Lowland’ RICE being cultivated in India

Upland rice depends largely on the distribution of rainfall, whereas Lowland rice requires a lot of irrigation during growth and harvest.
Upland rice is grown in March-April and lowland in late June at the beginning of rainy season.
Upland rice varieties are drought tolerant, but have a low yield potential.
India mostly grows lowland rice, since the yield of upland rice is much lower and cannot ensure our food security.

Father of Genetics 1856 : Gregor Mendel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance. He deduced that genes come in pairs and are inherited as distinct units, one from each parent.

GM Genetic Modified Crops :

In 1996 , GM seeds were allowed in India.
Cultivation of BT cotton was allowed in India in 2002. In 10 states of India , BT cotton is being grown. India is Largest producer of Bt cotton.

BT Cotton :

Bt cotton, a transgenic plant which produces an insect controlling protein Cry1A(c), the gene for which has been derived from the naturally occurring Soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (B.t.k.).

The cotton hybrids containing Bt gene produces its own toxin for bollworm attack thus significantly reducing chemical insecticide use and providing a major benefit to cotton growers and the environment.

Bt cotton contains the 3 genes, apart from Cry1Ac the other two are NPTII and AAD inserted via genetic engineering techniques. NPTII gene and the AAD gene encode for the NPTII and AAD proteins and they are used as a selectable marker and have no pesticidal activity and are not known to be toxic to any species.
BT refers to the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis which naturally produces a chemical harmful only to a small fraction of insects, most notably the larvae of moths and butterflies, beetles, and flies, and harmless to other forms of life.
To produce the GM Cotton, the gene coding for Bt toxin (Cry-1-ac) has been inserted into cotton, causing cotton to produce this natural insecticide in its tissues And the larvae are killed by the Bt protein in the GM cotton they eat. This eliminates the need to use large amounts of broad-spectrum insecticides to kill various pesticides.
Official approval of Bt Cotton was granted in March 2002, thus Bt Cotton became the 1st GM crop approved in India. Mahyco became the first Indian company to commercialize transgenic cotton hybrids in India in 2002.

Side Effects of BT Cotton : Deficiency of Nutrients in the fields, Effects on animals who eat the residues.

Seeds form by pollination is called Compound seeds (Shankar beej)
Tobacco was first GM crop produced in 1982.
American Monsanto company claims the royality payment on GM seeds.

Bt Brinjal

is a GM crop created by inserting Cry 1Ac gene from the soil bacterium BT Bacillus Thuringiensis into Brinjal.
The insertion of the gene gives Brinjal plant resistance against lepidopteron insects like the Brinjal Fruit and Shoot Borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and Fruit Borer (Helicoverpa armigera).
Upon ingestion of the Bt toxin by the insect, there would be disruption of digestive processes, ultimately resulting in the death of the insects.
Bt Brinjal seed was also developed by Mahyco or Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company in collaboration with Monsanto(USA based).
GEAC had approved permission for field trials of Bt Brinjal in 2009. Meanwhile, in 2013, Bangladesh gave nod to the commercial cultivation of Bt brinjal, making it the first South Asian country to cultivate the GM crop. Indian government to explore all options under the Cartagena Protocol to ensure that Bangladesh takes all measures to ensure that our diversity here is safeguarded from any trans-boundary movement of this GM food crop.

Herbicide: A chemical used for killing or inhibiting the growth of unwanted plants Ex: Atrazine, Simazine, Cyanazine.

Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 or DMH-11 :

is a genetically modified hybrid variety of the mustard species Brassica juncea.
was developed by Professor Deepak Pental from the University of Delhi(project was part-funded by Dept of Biotechnology, under Science Ministry), with the aim of reducing India's demand for edible oil imports.
DMH - 11 was created through transgenic technology (introducing foreign DNA into a host organism's Genome), primarily involving the Bar, Barnase and Barstar gene system in which Bar from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens for hybrid seed production.
The Barnase gene confers male sterility, while the Barstar gene restores DMH - 11's ability to produce fertile seeds.
The insertion of the third gene Bar, enables DMH - 11 to produce phosphinothricin-N- acetyl-transferase PAT, the enzyme responsible for Glufosinate resistance.

Glufosinate is a broad spectrum herbicide, which indiscriminately eliminates weeds and any plant that does not have the bar gene.
Glufosinate herbicides contain the active ingredient phosphinothricin, which kills plants by blocking the enzyme responsible for nitrogen metabolism and for detoxifying ammonia, a by-product of plant metabolism.

Two genes (‘barnase’ and ‘barstar’) that allow for cross-pollination and hybridisation in mustard, which is largely a self-pollinating plant because of its individual flowers containing both female and male reproductive organs.

It is Herbicide Tolerant (HT) crop.
This hybrid mustard variety has come under intense public scrutiny, mainly due to concerns regarding DMH - 11's potential to adversely affect the environment as well as consumer health.
DMH - 11 was found not to pose any food allergy risks, and has demonstrated increased yields over existing mustard varieties.
Conflicting details and results regarding the field trials and safety evaluations conducted on DMH - 11 have delayed its approval for commercial cropping.
DMH - 11 was also subject to a food allergenicity test using bioinformatics comparisons following CODEX and ICMR guidelines, to examine whether the amino acid sequence of Bar, Barnase and Bastar proteins were potential allergens

Rhododendron:

Found in varied habitats from subtropical forest to alpine shrubs, rhododendrons range from dwarf shrubs to large trees.
The smallest are R. nivale and R. pumilum at just 10 to 50 cm while the tallest species, R. arboretum grows over 40 metres tall.
The cold, moist slopes and deep valleys of the eastern Himalayas form a conducive habitat for the luxuriant growth of Rhododendron species.
Arunachal Pradesh is home to the highest number with 119 taxa (74 species, 21 sub species and 24 varieties) of the Rhododendron.
The small State of Sikkim is home to 42 taxa (25 species, 11 sub-species and six varieties) while 10 taxa are found in Manipur, four in Mizoram and 11 in Nagaland.

The State flower of J & K is SACRED LOTUS

Rhododendron is the state flower and tree of himachal and Uttarakhand respective only.

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Microbeads

In a nutshell, they are tiny pieces of plastic found in many beauty products, such as exfoliating scrubs, toothpastes and more.

Chiru goat aka Tibetan antelope

a ‘near threatened’ species has long been hunted for its underfur (Shahtoosh), which is renowned for its quality and has traditionally been transported to Srinagar, where it is woven into an extremely fine fabric used to make shawls.
Chiru as the sole species in the genus Pantholops, inhabits the high-altitude Tibetan plateau. Endemic to the Tibetan Plateau, the Tibetan antelope inhabits open alpine and cold steppe environments.

Changthangi goat

Belongs Northern Himalayan region are a breed of goat inhabiting the plateaus in Tibet and neighbouring areas of Ladakh in J & K.
They are raised for ultra-fine cashmere wool Pashmina, which literally translates to "Soft Gold" in Kashmiri.
The Changthangi goats have revitalised the poor economy of Changthang, Leh and Ladakh region.

Nilgiri Marten looks like mangoose, listed as vulnerable in IUCN and sch. II part II of Indian (wildlife protection act)1972, are found on high altitudes in Pampadum Shola NP in Western ghats.

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Molecular machine

Discrete number of molecular components that produce quasi-mechanical movements (output) in response to specific external stimuli (input).
are considered as world’s smallest machines, inspired by proteins that naturally act as biological machines within cells.
are either synthetic or biological molecules that chemical energy into mechanical forces and motion.
Synthetic (CN nanomotors)
Biological

Ribosome (who are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes ) are the protein builders or the protein synthesizers of the cell who connect one amino acid at a time and build long chains.
myosin, responsible for muscle contraction,
protein kinesin, uses the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate ATP to move along microtubule filaments.
dynein, which produces the axonemal beating of motile cilia and flagella,
transmembrane ATPases such like ATP Synthase)

Uses : Tiny motors, pistons ratchets or wheels to produce mechanical motion and can move objects many time their size. Artificial muscles to power tiny robots or even prosthetic limbs in case of Bionics, new sensors, materials and energy storage systems, deliver drugs within the human body directly to target a specific area of tissue

Microbial fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy by the catalytic reaction of microorganisms.
A typical microbial fuel cell consists of anode and cathode compartments separated by a cation (positively charged ion) specific membrane. In the anode compartment, fuel is oxidized by microorganisms, generating CO2, electrons and protons.
Electrons are transferred to the cathode compartment through an external electric circuit, while protons are transferred to the cathode compartment through the membrane.
Justification: Statement 1: Phototrophic biofilm MFCs (PBMFCs) are the ones that make use photosynthetic microorganism like chlorophyta, cyanophyta etc., since they could carry out photosynthesis and thus they act as both producers of organic metabolites and also as electron donors
Statement 2: Some MFCs use electrochemically active bacteria to transfer electrons to the electrode (electrons are carried directly from the bacterial respiratory enzyme to the electrode).
Some MFC's produce electric current by the bacterial decomposition of organic compounds in water. But, there are microbial electrolysis cells (MEC) also which reverse this process to generate hydrogen or methane by applying a voltage to bacteria.

bio-fuels

Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer covering called the cell wall. The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a complex substance and provides structural strength to plants. When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.

Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute (hypotonic) external media without bursting. In such media the cells tend to take up water by osmosis. The cell swells, building up pressure against the cell wall. The wall exerts an equal pressure against the swollen cell. Because of their walls, such cells can withstand much greater changes in the surrounding medium than animal cells.

Warm-blooded creatures

Like mammals and birds, try to keep the inside of their bodies at a constant temperature. They do this by generating their own heat when they are in a cooler environment, and by cooling themselves when they are in a hotter environment.
To generate heat, warm-blooded animals convert the food that they eat into energy. They have to eat a lot of food, compared with cold-blooded animals, to maintain a constant body temperature.
Only a small amount of the food that a warm-blooded animal eats is converted into body mass. The rest is used to fuel a constant body temperature.

Cold-blooded animals

They are much more active in warm environments and are very sluggish in cold environments.
This is because their muscle activity depends on chemical reactions which run quickly when it is hot and slowly when it is cold.
A cold-blooded animal can convert much more of its food into body mass compared with a warm-blooded animal.
A cold-blooded animal's level of activity depends upon the temperature of its surroundings. A reptile, for example, will increase its body temperature before hunting and is better able to escape predators when it is warm.
Cold-blooded animals also need to be warm and active to find a mate and reproduce.
Being cold-blooded, however, also has its advantages. They require much less energy to survive than warm-blooded animals do.
Mammals and birds require much more food and energy than do cold-blooded animals of the same weight. This is because in warm-blooded animals, the heat loss from their bodies is proportional to the surface area of their bodies, while the heat created by their bodies is proportional to their mass.

White Naped Tit bird species

the very patchily distributed and has been considered to be vulnerable to extinction especially because of the scarcity of suitable habitats particularly nest cavities made by woodpeckers.
Two patches are:

one in central and southern Rajasthan, Kutch and northern Gujarat in the north-west,
the other in the Eastern Ghats of southern Andhra Pradesh, northern Tamil Nadu and Karnataka in the south

It inhabits tropical, dry thorn-scrub forests, particularly those dominated by Acacia species, from the lowlands and foothills up to at least 750 m, occasionally straying into gardens, vegetated streambeds and irrigated crop fields during drought years.

The 21st Indian Birding Fair is happening at the Man Sagar Lake, Rajasthan and this year, this fair is dedicated to the White Naped Tit bird, which is quite rare in Jaipur and are at the verge of extinction. It is a rare species, with a maximum of 165 records pertaining to 250 individuals over the last 150 years. It appears to have declined substantially.

Olive Ridley turtles

Also known as Pacific ridley sea turtle, Olive turtles are a medium-sized species of sea turtle found in warm and tropical waters, primarily in Pacific and Indian Oceans.
They are best known for their behavior of synchronized nesting in mass numbers.
They are classified as Vulnerable according to IUCN, and is listed in Appendix I of CITES.
The Convention on Migratory Species(CMS) and Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles have also provided olive ridleys with protection, leading to increased conservation and management for this marine turtle.

In India this year 3,100 female olive ridley turtles have come out of the sea to the sandy beach of the Rushikulya rookery coast in Ganjam district of Odisha.

Red handfish the rarest of rare fish species are found in Tasmania.

GLYCEMIC INDEX of a carbohydrate represents how quickly its consumption increases blood sugar levels.

In index Values range from 1 (the slowest) to 100 (the fastest, the index of pure glucose).

Angiosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants. Their reproductive structures are flowers in which the ovules are enclosed in an ovary.

Angiosperms are found in almost every habitat from forests and grasslands to sea margins and deserts. Angiosperms display a huge variety of life forms including trees, herbs, submerged aquatics, bulbs and epiphytes.

The largest plant families are Orchids, and Composite (daisies) and Legumes (beans).

The flowers of flowering plants are the most remarkable feature that distinguishes them from other seed plants.

Flowers initiated the differences between gymnosperms and angiosperms by broadening the scope of evolutionary relationships and niches open to flowering plants, allowing them to eventually dominate terrestrial ecosystems.

new species named Tyrannomyrmex alii (or T. alii) is found in the Periyar Tiger Reserve of Western Ghats. The ant is named after eminent myrmecologist Musthak Ali, who is regarded as the country’s ‘ant man’.

Scientists have discovered three new species of eel along the northern Bay of Bengal coast in the past few months. Eels are found mostly at the bottom of rivers and seas. In India, the number is around 125.

Dark brown with white dots on the dorsal side, Gymnothorax pseudotile was discovered at the Digha coast of the Bay of Bengal. The other two species, Gymnothorax visakhaensis (uniformly brown) and Enchelycore propinqua (reddish brown body mottled with irregular creamy white spots), were discovered from the Visakhapatnam coast of the Bay of Bengal. Enchelycore propinqua is the smallest of them measuring less than a foot.

Musa paramjitiana: species of wild banana discovered recently in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and conservation status has been declared as ‘Critically Endangered’ .

Panama disease (or Fusarium wilt) on BANANA

is a plant disease that infects banana plants (Musaspp.)

It is a wilting disease caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense(Foc).

The pathogen is resistant to fungicides and until now, its control is limited to phytosanitary measures.

Although a transgenic banana cultivar that proved resistant to Panama disease has been recently developed, it is not commercially available yet.

ammonia NH3

Ammonia occurs naturally in the environment.
Both gaseous and particulate ammonia contribute to eutrophication of surface waters, soil acidification, fertilization of vegetation, changes in ecosystems and smog and decreased visibility in cities and pristine areas.
Excess of Ammonia in water bodies leads to eutrophication.

Bio-fertilizers are specific types of living organisms like symbiotic bacteria, Cyanobacteria (also called as blue green algae), sea weeds etc. that can bring about nutrient enrichment of soil in many different ways.

Anabaena azollae, Anabaena cycadae, Azolla pinnata and Nostoc are different plants that enhance the productivity Of soil when added to it.

Bacteria like Rhizobium fix nitrogen for plants and Nostoc, Azolla, and Cyanobacteria that are great nitrogen fixers, are used as bio- fertilizers in crop fields, most frequently.

Bio-fertilizers are useful in the Conservation and Management Of soil in following ways —

These are helpful in the replenishment and enhancement of soil fertility.
These fertilizers improve water holding capacity, aeration, porosity and drainage of soil.
These fertilizers are helpful in reclamation of unproductive soils.
These fertilizers are helpful in preventing soil erosion.

Aflatoxins are a family of toxins produced by certain fungi that are found on agricultural crops such as maize (corn), peanuts, cottonseed, and tree nuts. The main fungi that produce aflatoxinsare Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which are abundant in warm and humid regions of the world.

Algae Noctiluca scintillans

The green algae behind the scintillating phenomenon observed in oceans when they glow fluorescent blue at night.
The Noctiluca algae is often reported to occur in patches or blooms in the Northern Arabian Sea
These striking green blooms often appear to glow at night due to a special phenomenon called bioluminescence, earning them the nickname ‘sea sparkle’
An Indo-US study has found that global warming is leading to large-scale fish kills in the Arabian Sea by fuelling the growth of this harmful bioluminescent algae.
It is believed to be dangerous to ocean life because it produces ammonia. Their growing abundance is a cause of concern, because they adversely affect fish, which do not thrive in such waters.

Retrotransposons identified as special genes which could help Symbiodinium adapt more rapidly to heat stress.

Symbiodinium is a unicellular algae that provides its coral host with photosynthetic products in return for nutrients and shelter.

Coral bleach: High sea temperatures can cause the breakdown of the symbiotic relationship between the algae and corals that lead to the widespread expulsion of Symbiodinium from host tissues, an event known as coral beaching. If bleached corals do not recover, they starve to death, leaving only their white, calcium-carbonate exoskeleton.

Coral Bleaching

Bleaching occurs when abnormal environmental conditions, such as warmer sea temperatures, cause corals to expel tiny photosynthetic algae, draining them of their colour. Corals can recover if the water temperature drops and the algae are able to recolonise them.

Healthy coral reefs are among the most biologically diverse and economically valuable ecosystems on earth, providing valuable and vital ecosystem services.
Coral ecosystems are a source of food for millions; protect coastlines from storms and erosion; provide habitat, spawning and nursery grounds for economically important fish species; provide jobs and income to local economies from fishing, recreation, and tourism; are a source of new medicines, and are hotspots of marine biodiversity.
By helping to prevent coastal erosion, flooding, and loss of property on the shore, the reefs save billions of dollars each year in terms of reduced insurance and reconstruction costs and reduced need to build costly coastal defences.
They form the nurseries for about a quarter of the ocean's fish, and thus provide revenue for local communities as well as national and international fishing fleets.
A new class of proteins capable of blocking the HIV virus from penetrating T-cells has been discovered. The proteins have been found in a coral from Australia's northern coast.
Coral reefs are also being used in treatment of cancer.

Drypetes kalamii

new plant species identified by Botanical Survey of India from two protected National Parks( Jaldapara & Buxa ) in West Bengal.
is unisexual in nature, which means they have separate male and female plants.
the plant to be “Critically Endangered” in IUCN
found in wet, shaded areas of subtropical moist semi-evergreen forests, at a height ranging 50-100 metres.

CLOTHES Textiles —> Cotton , Silk

Cotton

All Four species of cultivated Cotton - Gossypium arboreum and herbaceum (Asian Cotton), G.barbadense (Egyptian Cotton) and G. hirsutum (American Upland Cotton) – are all grown in India.
Gossypium hirsutum represents 88% of the hybrid cotton production in India and all the current Bt cotton hybrids are G.hirsutuim.
Most of the country’s cotton production comes from 10 cotton growing States, which can be grouped into 3 regions viz., Northern Zone comprising Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, Central zone comprising of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh & Orissa and Southern Zone comprising of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. (Nothing from NE & WB, UP, BIhar)

Muslin is a type of cotton textile which had its origin in Bengal, particularly, places in and around Dhaka (spelled during the pre-independence period as Dacca), now the capital city of Bangladesh.

‘Daccai Muslin’ had gained worldwide fame as an exquisite type of cotton textile. The finest variety of muslin was called malmal.

Sometimes, foreign travellers also used to refer to it as malmal shahi or malmal khas implying that it was worn by, or fit for, the royality.

Silk Industry of India : Sericulture Provides gainful occupation to around 63 Lakh persons in rural and semi-urban areas in India.

World’s second largest after China. Silk production of China is declining rapidly in recent times.

India is known the world over for the exquisite brocade fabrics of Banaras, silks of Karnataka, tie-and–dye and Patola of Gujarat and Rajasthan, ikats from Orissa, fine Bandhej and temple silks of Kancheepuram and Tanjore, etc.

India produces 4 varieties of silk produced, viz.

Mulberry : About 80% of the silk produced in the country is of mulberry silk, majority of which is produced in 3 south States of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu followed by West Bengal and J & K. Mulberry sericulture is practised since time immemorial in the North Eastern Region (NER).
Eri : is grown in Assam and the adjacent N-E states, Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha.
Tasar or Tussar : The tropical Tasar silk is produced largely in the central India covering the tribal areas of Jharkhand , Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, etc. Oak Tasar is produced in Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Uttarakhand, Jammu & Kashmir, etc. They are made from silk that is produced from silk worms that breed on wild forest trees, not mulberry trees. China is the major producer of oak tasar in the world
Muga : is unique in having a golden sheen and is a prized possession of India. Muga is largely restricted to Assam and other north-eastern states and recently spread to West Bengal.

Type of Silk	Production	Sources	Quality	Regions/States
Mulberry	71.8%	From the silkworm, Bombyx mori L. which feeds on the leaves of mulberry plant.		KA, AP, TN, WB, JK
Eri	17.8%	Multivoltine silk spun from open-ended cocoons which are domesticated silkworm on castor leaves		NE states, BR, WB, OD
Tussar : Tropical & Oak	9.9%	Silk worms that breed on wild forest trees		JH, CG, BR, MP, MH, AP
Muga or Munga	0.6%	semi-domesticated multivoltine , larvae of the Assam or Muga silkmoth feed on aromatic som and sualu leaves		Assam
Gossamer		protein fibre spun by Spiders
Ahimsa		The Peace Silk is created without killing the creatures that created it.

Central Silk Board is established in 1948 a statutory body, under administrative control of the Ministry of Textiles, GOI, by an Act of Parliament, the CSB has been entrusted with the overall responsibility of developing silk industry

China silk : Woven Polyester fibre that resembles the sheen and durability of insect-derived silk

JUTE :

Improved Cultivation and Advanced Retting Exercise for Jute (Jute – ICARE) was launched in 2015 to popularize/introduce some of the better agronomic practices and recently developed microbial-assisted retting among farmers.
Central Research Institute for Research in Jute and Allied Fibres (CRIJAF) has also recently developed a microbial consortium called SONA, to enhance the quantity of fibre yield by 20% as well as its quality in terms of grade by at least 1 1⁄2 grades.
Also, under the project, regular SMSes are sent in regional languages on improved practices in jute cultivation, to registered farmers.

Rubber :

India is the 3rd largest natural rubber producing country of the world, next to Thailand and Indonesia, producing about 9 per cent of the global output.
Kerala is the largest producer, followed by TN.
So far as artificial/synthetic rubber is concerned, Chemical & Petrochemical Industry is delicensed and decontrolled and Government acts as facilitator in this sector.
In order to increase production of Natural Rubber in the country the Government through the Rubber Board is implementing the scheme “Sustainable and Inclusive Development of Natural Rubber Sector” wherein support is provided for plantation development and extension, strengthening research, technology upgradation and market development, Human resource development etc.

Linen (flax):

Linen fabric or weave is produced of fiber of the flax plant.
Its softness, natural origins, durability and strength, as well as its antifungal and antibacterial properties are the reasons linen fabric is desired.
Vedic literature reveals the usage of “umah” and “ksauma”, both types of linen, to create woven textiles.
Fibre flax (the plant from which linen is derived) is known to have been cultivated in India up to 5000 years ago, pre dating any evidence of cotton production.
The two varieties of Linen are – Fibre flax (mainly grown in Europe), and seed flax (grown worldwide).

Agricultural Fields holdings in India :

Marginal Holdings - less than 1 hectare - 67%
Small Holdings - in between 1 and 2 hectare - 18%
Min medium holdings - between 2 and 4 actors - 10%
Medium Holdings - between 4 to 10 hectares - 4.25%
Large Holdings - more than 10 hectares - 0.7%

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Panama disease (or Fusarium wilt) on BANANA

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