INDIA's GEOGRAPHY

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India’s Rock Formation : 

Structurally the Indian landmass is divided into 3 main divisions consisting of

• The Himalayan Mountain Chain
• The North Indian Plain; and
• The Peninsular Plateau

Stratigraphically, India can be divided into several divisions such as Archean  System, Dharwar System, Cudappah system, Vindhyan system, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Gondwana, Deccan Trap, Tertiary  and Alluvial.

—> Archean is oldest followed by Dharwar rocks & Tertiary rocks are the youngest. 

Archean Rocks : 

• Pre-Cambrian rocks are the oldest rocks(called Purana Rocks) of the earth’s crust
• They were formed before the appearance of life in the geologic sequence i.e. in Azoic Age.
• covers 86.7% of Total geological history time of earth
• This period marks the development of first photosynthesis, the life support atmosphere.
• They are Azoid, means that are devoid of any form of remnants of life in them. 
• serve as the basement complex or fundamental gneisses.
• They are found in Aravallis mountains, 2/3rd of the Deccan peninsula and some parts of North east.
• have abundant metallic and non-metallic minerals such as iron, copper, manganese, bauxite, lead, zinc, gold, silver, tin, tungsten, mica, asbestos, graphite, etc.

Dharwar system :

• it is the first metamorphic sedimentary rocks in India. Dharwar system is later than the Archean system but older than the other systems. 
• Named Dharwar system because they were first studied in Dharwar region of Karnataka But they are also found in Aravallis, Tamil Nadu, Chotanagpur plateau, Meghalaya, Delhi, and the Himalayas region.
• Rich in Metallic Minerals such as iron ore, manganese, lead, zinc, gold, silver etc.
• Uranium deposits occur in Dharwar rocks. 
• The series of Dharwar system are 
• Champions series containing gold mines lie within this system. This Champion system is named after the Champion reef in the Kolar Gold Fields. The Kolar Gold Fields contain one of the deepest gold mines of world.
• Champaner series that is found near Baroda. This is source of a lush green variety of marble.
• Closepet series that is found in Balaghat and Chhindwara of MP. It is rich in Copper ores.
• Chilpi Series that is found in and around the Closepet series in Balaghat and Chhindwara 
• Iron-Ore series that is located in Singhbhum, Mayurbnhanj of Odisha and Keonjhar rangaes.

Cudappah System :

• rich in metamorphic rocks such as sandstone, shale, limestone, quartzite, and slate
• contain iron and other inferior quality of ores and minerals
• mainly found in Cudappah district of Andhra Pradesh along with other places such as Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Delhi, and the lesser Himalayas
• important series of Cudappah System is Papaghani series, named after the river of same name in Andhra Pradesh

Vindhyan System

• The Vindhyan Mountains form a dividing line between the Ganges plain and Deccan Plateau.
• extensively distributed in India from Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) to Sasaram (Bihar). 
• separated from Aravallis by the Great Boundary Fault
• Famous sources of Red Sandstone and other building material. 
• The well known Panna & Golconda diamonds are found in this formation. 
• The important series of this system are Bhander series, Bijwar series and Kaimur series. 
• All are rich sources of Building material.

Gondwana System or Carboniferous period System or Dravidian System 

• contains famous Damuda and Panchet series which are famous for COAL deposits and have major coal deposits of India. 
• The coal bearing areas of this series are Raniganj, Jharia, Karanpur, and Bokaro of the Damodar basin in Odisha, and the Pench valley in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, the jhingurda coal seam (Chhattisgarh).
• Hence major regions are the Damodar (Jharkhand-West Bengal); the Mahanadi (Chhattisgarh - Odisha); the Son (Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand); the Godavari and the Wardha (Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh); the Indravati, the Narmada, the Koel, the Panch, the Kanhan rivers. 
• It forms a unique sequence of fluviatile rocks deposited in Permo - Carboniferous time. 
• Damodar and Sone river valley and Rajmahal hills in the eastern India is depository of the Gondwana rocks.

About 80% of the coal deposits in India is of bituminous type and is of non-coking grade (Anthracite is best coal ). This is one of the reasons that India has to rely upon imports of coking coal. The Coal resources of India are available in older Gondwana Formations of peninsular India and younger Tertiary formations of north-eastern region.

Deccan Trap or Cretaceous system 

• It is thought to have formed as result of sub-aerial volcanic activity associated with the continental deviation in this part of the Earth during the Mesozoic era
• covers almost all of Maharashtra, some parts of Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and marginally Andhra Pradesh
• generally, the Rocks of Deccan Trap are IGNEOUS.
• The Cretaceous system or Deccan Trap is made up of Basalt rocks. Also called lava trap and is 3000 meters deep. 

Tertiary System : have COAL reserve

• Belongs to Cenozoic era which has two periods’ viz. tertiary and quaternary.
• The final break-up of the Gondwana land occurred in this era and the Tethys sea got lifted in the Himalayas.
• Found in northern plains of India, karewas of Kashmir and bhadarwah, Bhangar, and Khadar of the Great Plains. 
• The rocks of this system are also found in coast of Kachchh,  Katiawar,  Konkan,  Malabar, Nilgiri, and the Eastern Ghats.

• Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG) has identified six basins as potentially shale gas bearing. These are Cambay, Assam-Arakan, Gondwana, Krishna-Godavari, Kaveri, and the Indo-Gangetic plain. 

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• Malwa region
• It occupies a plateau in western MP and south-eastern Rajasthan with Gujarat in the west. 
• The plateau generally slopes towards the north & its western part is drained by the Mahi River, while the Chambal River drains the central part, and the Betwa River and the headwaters of the Dhasan and Ken rivers drain the east.
• The Shipra River is of historical importance because of the Ujjain Simhasth mela(aka Ujjain Kumbh Mela), held every 12 years. Other notable rivers are Parbati, Gambhir and Choti Kali Sindh 
• The plateau is an extension of the Deccan Traps, formed between 60 and 68 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period.
• In this region the main classes of soil are black, brown and bhatori (stony) soil. 
• The region has been one of the important producers of opium in the world. 
• Wheat and soybeans are other important cash crops, and textiles are a major industry. 

• Chota Nagpur Plateau 
• It is a continental plateau—an extensive area of land thrust above the general land. 
• The plateau has been formed by continental uplift from forces acting deep inside the earth. 
• The Gondwana substrates attest to Chota Nagpur plateau's ancient origin.
• The Damodar River flows through Chota Nagpur Plateau ( Not Mahanadi ). 
• Chota Nagpur plateau is a store house of minerals like mica, bauxite, copper, limestone, iron ore and coal. 
• The Damodar valley is rich in coal and it is considered as the prime centre of coking coal in the country.
• Massive coal deposits are found in the central basin. 
• Important coalfields in the basin are Jharia, Raniganj, West Bokaro, East Bokaro, Ramgarh, South Karanpura and North Karanpura. 

LATERITE SOILS in Western Ghats

• It is developed in areas with high temperature and high rainfall. 
• These are the result of intense leaching due to tropical rains. With rain, lime and silica are leached away and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium compound are left behind. 
• Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrives well in high temperature. 
• These soils are poor in organic matter NKCa i.e. nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide FeO & K potash are in excess. 
• Hence, laterites are NOT suitable for cultivation; however, application of manures and fertilisers are required for making the soils fertile for cultivation. 
• Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like Cashew nut.

LIGNITE Coal : 

• Indian coal offers a unique eco-friendly fuel source to domestic energy market for the next century and beyond. 
• Hard coal deposit spread over 27 major coalfields, are mainly confined to eastern and south central parts of the country. 
• The LIGNITE reserves stand at a level around 36 billion tonnes, of which 90% occur in the southern State of Tamil Nadu. 
• Coal accounts for 55% of the country's energy need. 
• Commercial primary energy consumption in India has grown by about 700% in the last four decades. 
• Coal accounts for a large part of this increase.

Gneiss 

• is usually forms by regional metamorphism at convergent plate boundaries. 
• It is a high-grade metamorphic rock in which mineral grains re-crystallized under intense heat and pressure associated with mountain building and volcanic activity. 
• This alteration increases the size of the mineral grains and segregated them into bands, a transformation which made the rock and its minerals more stable in their metamorphic environment. 
• Gneiss can form in several different ways. The most common path begins with shale, which is a sedimentary rock. 
• Regional metamorphism can transform shale into slate, then phyllite, then schist, and finally into gneiss. 

Regional metamorphism ( shale —> slate —> phyllite —> schist —> gneiss )

Shale Gas :

• Fracking is the technique used to extract the gas
• Throughout the world, different types of sedimentary rocks contain natural gas deposits, for example sandstones, limestones and shales.
• Sandstone rocks often have high permeability, which means that the tiny pores within the rock are well connected and gas can flow easily through the rock. 
• In contrast, shale rocks where gas is trapped as a continuous accumulation throughout a large area usually have very low permeability, making gas production more complex and costly. 
• The shale gas boom in recent years has been due to modern advancement in technology in hydraulic fracturing (fracking) to create extensive artificial fractures around well bores. 
• Shale exists in sedimentary basins and typically forms about 80% of what a well will drill through. As a result, the main organic rich shales have already been identified in most regions of the world.
• The biggest apprehension in exploitation of shale gas is the hydraulic fracturing job wherein large amount of water mixed with fracturing fluids is injected at high pressure into the reservoirs. 
• The horizontal drilling within the shale gas bearing zones has to be enabled to receive gas trapped in the horizontal shales. 
• The use of sand/ceramic with high pressure water helps to fracture the shales and the resultant deposits of sand in the fractures, keeps the pores open for the gas to leak into the horizontal wells.

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Objectives and Goals:

1. The Physical features of India.

2. Theory of Plate Tectonic

3. Three types of plate boundaries (i.e. Convergent Boundary, Divergent Boundary and Transform Boundary).

4. The Continental Drift Theory

5. Formation of India.

6. The major physiographic divisions of India (i.e. The Himalayan Mountains, The Northern Plains, The Peninsular Plateau, The Indian Desert, The Coastal Plains, and The Islands)

7. The great Himalayas, three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent (i.e. The Great or Inner Himalayas or Himadri, The Lesser Himalaya or Himachal and The Shiwaliks).

8. Some of the highest peaks of Himalayas.

9. Division of Himalayan regions from west to east (i.e. Punjab Himalayas, Kumaon Himalayas, Nepal Himalayas and Assam Himalayas)

10. Eastern hills and mountains (i.e. Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Manipuri Hills and Mizo Hills)

11. The Northern Plains, three sections of Northern Plain (i.e. Punjab Plains, Ganga Plains and Brahmaputra Plains).

12. Division of northern plain on the basis of relief features; divided into four regions (i.e. Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar and Khadar).

13. The Peninsular Plateau, which is broadly divided into two regions (i.e. The Central Highlands and The Deccan Plateau).

14. Western and Eastern Ghats

15. Indian Desert

16. Coastal Plain of India (i.e. The Eastern and Western Coastal Plains)

17. Islands of India (i.e. Lakshadweep Islands and Andaman and Nicobar Islands)

Theory of Plate Tectonics:

• The continental blocks or the plates are floating on mantle.
• The Crust (upper part) of the earth has been formed out of seven major and some minor plates. Following are the seven major plates: -

1. African Plate
2. Antarctic Plate
3. Eurasian Plate
4. Indo-Australian Plate
5. North American Plate
6. Pacific Plate
7. South American Plate

They move with the change or release of pressure and temperature inside the earth.

Folding: Caused by compression, when blocks of landforms comes closer to each other, they form wrinkles or folds on the earth's surface. E.g. the young fold mountains "Himalayas".

Faulting: The structure of rocks cracks or breaks along the weaker areas due to tension, this is called faulting. This may cause upliftment and subsidence of land and can form Block Mountains. E.g. Vindhyas and Satpura hills.

When a part of land subsides between two faults, it forms Rift Valley. Narmada & Tapti Rivers flow through the rift valley.

Volcanic Activities: Natural openings in the earth's crust through which molten materials, rocks, ashes, gases, etc are thrown out are called 'Volcanoes'.

• At some convergent boundaries, an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate. Oceanic crust tends to be denser and thinner than continental crust, so the denser oceanic crust gets bent and pulled under, or subducted, beneath the lighter and thicker continental crust. This forms what is called a subduction zone. 

Theory of Plate Tectonics:

Plate movements are of three types:

1. Convergent Boundary: In this case, the two adjacent tectonic plates move towards each other.

2. Divergent Boundary: In this case, the two adjacent plates move away from each other.

3. Transform Boundary: In this case, the two adjacent plates move along their borders.

Continental Drift Theory:

• According to the theory of Continental Drift, the world was made up of a single continent through most of geologic time. That continent eventually separated and drifted apart, forming into the seven continents we have today. The first comprehensive theory of continental drift was suggested by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener in 1912.
• Million of year also there was a single continent named "Pangaea". 
• Pangaea broke into pieces due to internal forces and is drifting away from each other since last almost 250 million years.
• Two landmasses – "Laurasia in North" and "Gondwanaland in South"
• Both the landmasses were separated by a shallow sea called "Tethys Sea".
• Size of Tethys sea kept on decreasing due to movement of landmasses towards each other, thus, resulting in the formation of the young fold mountains "Himalayas".

Formation of India

• The Indian Peninsula drifted towards the North and finally collided with the much larger Eurasian Plate.
• As a result of this collision, the sedimentary rocks which were accumulated in the geosynclines (known as Tethys) got folded and formed the mountain systems of the West Asia and Himalaya
• Due to the uplift of the Himalayas in the Tethys Sea, the northern part of the Indian Peninsula got subsided and formed a large basin. That basin was filled with sediments from the rivers which came from the mountains in the north and from the peninsula in the south.
• Thus, the northern plains of India came into existence. These plains are made up of alluvial deposits.
• The peninsular plateau is known as the old topography, whereas the Himalayas and the Northern plains are considered as new topography.
• The peninsular plateau is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and wide valleys.

INDIA

The major physiographic divisions of India: -

1. The Himalayan Mountains

2. The Northern Plains

3. The Peninsular Plateau

4. The Indian Desert

5. The Coastal Plains

6. The Islands

1. THE HIMALAYAN MOUNTAINS

• The name "Himalaya" means "the abode or house of snow" in Sanskrit i.e. hima "snow", and ālaya "abode or house".
• The Himalaya Mountain range is the highest on earth and is often referred to as the "roof of the world".
• These mountain ranges run in a west-east direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra.
• The Himalayas represent the loftiest and one of the most rugged mountain barriers in the world.
• The great Himalayas are also known as the young fold mountains.
• The Himalayas run along the northern border of India.
• The Himalayas form an arc which is about 2,400 km long.
• The width varies from 400 km in Kashmir to 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh.
• The altitudinal variations are greater in the eastern part than in the western part.
• There are three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent (i.e. The Great or Inner Himalayas or Himadri, The Lesser Himalaya or Himachal and The Shiwaliks).

• The altitude of Western Himalayas peaks does not differ significantly as compared to the Eastern Himalayas.
  The folds of Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is perennially snow bound, and a number of glaciers descend from this range.
  The outer most range of the Himalayas (Shiwaliks) is made up of unconsolidated deposits. 

• Western Himalayas receive most of the precipitation in the winter months and Eastern Himalayas in the summer months. 
• Snowline occurs at a higher altitude in Eastern Himalayas than in the Western Himalayas. 
• Western Himalayas are Higher in average LATITUDE than the eastern Himalayas.
  Ladakh glaciers in western Himalayas come down gentler slope than those of Eastern Himalayas. 

Western Himalayas

Eastern Himalayas

• Extends till west of River Kali ( 80°E Longitude). • Height of the mountains from the plains rises in a number of stages. The high mountain ranges are at a long distance from the plains. • Amount of rainfall here is less and is 1/4th of that of Eastern Himalayas. • The dominant vegetation in the western Himalayas is Coniferous forests and alpine vegetations. The Natural vegetation reflects the impact of lower rainfall. • The altitude of the Western Himalayas is higher than the Eastern Himalayas • Snowline is Lower than Eastern Himalayas • Western Himalayas receive more precipitation from northwest in the winters • Less biodiversity in comparison to eastern Himalaya.

•  Ranges from east of Singalila ranges in Sikkim (88°E Longitudes) to eastern boundaries of Himalayas. • Rises abruptly from the plains, thus peaks are not far away from the plains (like Kanchenjunga) • The region receives 4 times more rainfall than western Himalayas. Due to high rainfalls, it is covered with dense forests. • Snowline is Higher than Western Himalayas • Receive more precipitation from south-eastern monsoon in the summers. • Much ahead from western Himalayas in terms of Biodiversity and is one of the Biodiversity hotspots.

THE GREAT OR INNER HIMALAYAS OR HIMADRI:

• This is the northernmost range and is also known as 'Himadri'.
• This is the most continuous range.
• It contains the loftiest peaks.
• The average height of peaks in this range is 6,000 meters.
• All the prominent Himalayan peaks are in this range.
• The folds of the Great Himalayas are irregular in nature.
• The core of this part is composed of granite.
• Because of the lofty heights, the peaks of this range are perennially covered with snow.
• Famous glaciers like the Siachen Glacier, the Gangotri and Yamunotri, etc.

The world's largest glacier is the Lambert glacier in Antarctica. Second largest is Siachen which is located in the eastern Karakoram range in the Himalaya Mountains. Gangotri Glacier is also one of the largest glaciers in the Himalayas. 

Zemu Glacier : is largest glacier in the Eastern Himalaya. It is about 26 KMs in length and is located at the base of Kangchenjunga in the Sikkim Himalaya. It may be one of the sources for Teesta River. Zemu Glacier drains the east side of Kanchenjunga, the world's third highest mountain.

Drang-Drung Glacier is likely to be the largest glacier in Ladakh other than the Siachen Glacier in the Karakoram Range, with a maximum length of 23 KM at an average elevation of 4,780 m. The glacier lies in the northeastern Himalayan Range known as the Zanskar Range.

Zanskar Range : largest glacier of Zanskar is the Drung-Drang glacier. 

Shingo La Glacier (5200 m.): It is the second important glacier of Zanskar. 

Some of the highest peaks of the Himalayas are : -

• Saramati is the highest mountain range of Nagaland. Saramati is one of the ultra prominent peaks of Southeast Asia. 
• Kangju Kangri is a mountain in the Karakoram located in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. With a summit elevation of 6,725 meters above sea level, it is the highest peak of the Pangong range, a subrange of the Karakoram. 

THE LESSER HIMALAYA OR HIMACHAL:

• This range lies towards the south of the Great Himalayas.
• The altitude of peaks in this range varies from 3,700 to 4,500 meter.
• Average width of this range is 50 km.
• This range is mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks.
• The most important mountain range here is the Pir Panjal mountain range and it is the longest range.
• Dhaula Dhar and Mahabharat mountain ranges are also important ranges of lesser himalayas.
• All great valleys like Kashmir Valley, Kangra Valley, Kullu Valley are present here.
• This region is also known as for its hill stations (for e.g. Kullu,-Manali, Kufri, Shimla, Mussoorie, Nanital, etc.).

THE SHIWALIKS:

• The outermost range of the Himalayas is known as Shiwaliks, also known as Manak Parbat in ancient times.
• The altitude varies between 900 and 1100 meters in this range.
• The width varies between 10 to 50 km.
• These ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by the rivers.
• The longitudinal valleys lying between the Himachal and Shiwaliks are called 'Dun'.
• Unlike typical river valleys, duns have a structural origin and are covered with boulders and gravel originating from the erosion of the Himalayas and the Shiwalik uplands. Major duns found in the region are Dehra, Kothri, Chaukham, Patli and Kota. The dun of Dehra is the 

• biggest with a length of 35 km and width of 25 km.

HIMALAYAN REGIONS FROM WEST TO EAST:

• Himalayas have also been divided on the basis of regions from west to east. The division has been done on the basis of the rivers flowing in the himalayan regions. Following is the division: -
• Punjab Himalayas: This part lies between the Indus and Sutlej. They are also known as Kashmir Himalaya and Himachal Himalaya.
• Kumaon Himalayas: This part lies between Sutlej and Kali rivers.
• Nepal Himalayas: This part lies between the Kali and Tista rivers.
• Assam Himalayas: This part lies between the Tista and Dihang rivers.
• Some regional names of himalayas are: - Sagarmatha Himal , Annapurna Himal , Ganesh Himal, Langtang Himal, Manaslu Himal , Rolwaling Himal, Jugal Himal, Gauri Sankar Himal, Kanjirowa Himal, Khumbu Himal, Dhaulagiri Himal, Purvachal, etc.

EASTERN HILLS AND MOUNTAINS:

• The Brahmaputra marks the eastern border of the Himalayas.
• Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply towards south and form the Eastern hills or Purvachal.
• These hills run through the north eastern states of India.
• They are mostly composed of sandstones (i.e. Sedimentary rocks).
• These hills are covered with dense forest.
• These hills are composed of the Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Manipuri Hills and Mizo Hills.

2.THE NORTHERN PLAIN OF INDIA:

• The northern plain of India is formed by three river systems, i.e. the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra; along with their tributaries.
• This plain is composed of alluvial soil which has been deposited over millions of years.
• The total area of the northern plain is about 7 lakh square kilometer.
• It is about 2400 km long.
• Width is about 240 to 320 km .
• Northern plains are most densely populated areas of the country.
• Here we find alluvial soil, thus making the plain very fertile and agriculturally very productive.
• Because of the three river systems, i.e. the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra; along with their tributaries, availability of water is there in abundance through the year.
• The rivers in their lower course split into numerous channels or streams due to the deposition of silt. These channels or streams are known as Distributaries.
• The northern plain is divided into three sections, i.e. the Punjab Plain, the Ganga Plain and the Brahmaputra Plain.

Punjab Plains:

• The Punjab plains form the western part of the northern plain.
• This is formed by the Indus and its tributaries; like Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.
• A major portion of this plains is in Pakistan.
• Doabs are found in Punjab plains.
• Doab (do, "two" + ab, "water" or "river"). It as "a region or land lying between and reaching to the meeting of the two rivers.

Ganga Plains:

• This plain extends between Ghaggar and Tista rivers.
• The northern states, Haryana, Delhi, UP, Bihar, part of Jharkhand and West Bengal in the east lie in the Ganga plains.

Brahmaputra Plains:

• This plain forms the eastern part of the northern plain and lies in Assam.

Based on the relief features; the northern plain can be divided into four regions, viz. Bhabar, Terai, Bhangar and Khadar BTBK

 1. Bhabar:

• After descending from the mountains, the rivers deposit pebbles in a narrow belt.
• The width of this belt is about 8 to 16 kms.
• It lies parallel to the Shiwaliks.
• Bhabhar is the gently-sloping coarse alluvial zone below the Siwalik Hills (outermost foothills of Himalayas) where streams disappear into permeable sediments. The underground water level is deep in this region.

 2. Terai:

• The terai region lies towards south of the bhabar belt.
• In this region, the streams reappear and make a wet, swampy and marshy region.
• This region was full of forest and wildlife but after partition all this area was cleared and was converted into agricultural land for the settlement of the migrants.

 3. Bhangar:

• Bhangar is the largest part of the northern plain and is composed of the oldest alluvial soil.
• They lie above the flood plains. They resemble terraces.
• The soil of this region is locally known as kankar and is composed of calcareous deposits.

 4. Khadar:

• The floodplains formed by younger alluvium are called Khadar.
• The soil in this region is renewed every year and is highly fertile.
• This region is very suitable for intensive agricultural activities.

3.THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU

• The peninsular plateau is a tableland which contains igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• It is composed of the oldest rocks because it was formed from the drifted part of the Gondwana land.
• Broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills are the characteristic features of this plateau.
• The plateau can be broadly divided into two regions, i.e. the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.
• One of the important features of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area which is known as the Deccan Trap.
• This black soil originated from the volcanic eruption. Thus, it has igneous rocks.

The Central Highlands:

• The Central Highlands lies to the north of the Narmada river.
• It covers the major portion of the Malwa plateau.
• Location:
• North of Narmada river.
• Vindhya ranges in the South.
• Aravalis in the North West.
• Covers Malwa plateau, Bundelkhand , Baghelkhand and Chhotanagpur plateau.
• The rivers in this region flow from southwest to northeast (i.e. Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken, Son, etc.); which indicates the slope of this region.
• It is wider in the west and narrower in the east.
• Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand mark the eastward extension of this plateau.
• The plateau further extends eastwards into the Chhotanagpur plateau.

The Deccan Plateau:

• The Deccan Plateau lies to the south of the Naramada river.
• It is triangular in shape.
• The slope of the Deccan Plateau is from west to east.
• Most of the rivers flow from west to east.
• Location:
• The Satpura range makes its northern part.
• The Mahadev, Kaimur Hills and Maikal range make its eastern part.
• It extends into the north east which encompasses Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills.
• Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills are the prominent ranges; starting from west to east.

Western Ghats & Eastern Ghats:

• Western Ghats stretch from the Tapi River to Kanayakumari. But The Eastern Ghats stretch from Mahanadi Valley to the Nilgiris in the south.
• Western Ghat's average width is 50 to 80 km. But Eastern Ghat's width varying from 100 to 200 km.
• Western Ghats is source of many large rivers But no big river originates from the Eastern Ghats.
• Western Ghats are continuous and can be crossed through passes only. But Eastern Ghats has been divided into several parts by large rivers.
• Western Ghats average elevation is 900 to 1,600 meters But the average elevation of Eastern Ghats is about 600 metres above sea level.
• Highest Peak of Western Ghats: Anai Mudi (2695 meters).
• Highest Peak of Eastern Ghats: Mahendragiri (1501 meters).
• Western ghats receives orographic type of rainfall. South-west monsoons coming from the Arabian Sea and causes heavy rainfall. Eastern Ghats is almost parallel to the monsoons coming from the Bay of Bengal and does not cause much rainfall.

4.THE INDIAN DESERT:

• The Indian desert is also known as the Thar Desert.
• The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.
• This region gets very less rainfall which is less than 150 mm in a year.
• The climate is dry and vegetation is found is very less.
• Luni is the only large river but some streams appear during rainy season.
• Kindly note: The Luni is a river of western Rajasthan. It originates in the Pushkar Valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and ends in the marshy lands of Ran of Kutch in Gujarat.
• Crescent-shaped dunes (barchans) are found in this area.

5.THE COASTAL PLAINS OF INDIA:

• The Western Coastal Plains is a thin strip of coastal plain with a width of 50 kms between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats.
• It is divided into three sections. The Konkan; (Mumbai – Goa) in the north. The Kannada Plain makes the central part and the Malabar coast stretches in the south.
• The Eastern Coastal Plains is a strip of coastal plain with a width of 100 - 130 kms between the Bay of Bengal and the Eastern Ghats
• It is divided into two parts. The northern part is called Northern Circar. The southern part is called the Coromandel Coast.
• Extensive deltas are formed by large rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri.
• Chilika lake is an important feature along the eastern coast. It is the largest salt water lake in India.

6.THE ISLANDS OF INDIA:

India has two group of islands (i.e. Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea and Andaman & Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal).

• The Lakshadweep Islands covers an area of 32 sq kms. It got its name in the year 1973.
• The administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep is at Kavaratti Island.
• This group of islands is composed of small coral islands.
• This group of islands is rich in terms of biodiversity (flora & fauna).
• The Andaman & Nicobar Islands are located in the Bay of Bengal.
• These islands are bigger in size and has more number of islands.
• This group of islands can be divided into two groups. The Andaman is in the north and the Nicobar is in the south.
• These islands are located close to equator and thus, experience equatorial type of climate and also have thick forest cover.
• These islands too have rich biodiversity (flora & fauna).

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Thal Ghat links Nasik to Mumbai. 

Shor Ghat links Mumbai to Pune. 

Pal Ghat connects Kerala to Tamil Nadu (link Kochi to Chennai). 

Senkota pass between the Nagercoil and the Cardmom hills links Thiruvanathpuram and Madurai 

FSI (forests) as well as ASI (archaeology), BSI (botany), FiSI (fisheries), GSI (geology), IIEE (ecology), NIO (oceanography), RGCCI (population survey) and language survey), SI (cartography) and ZSI (zoology) are key national survey organisations of India.

• Aluminium  Kerala
• Bauxite    Rajasthan, Jammu & Kashmir
• Coal     Raniganj
• Cobalt     Rajasthan and Kerala
• Copper     Khetri (Rajasthan)
• Carborundum    Salem, Khasi Hills
• Diamond     Panna (Madhya Pradesh)
• Gold Kolar    (Karnataka)
• Gypsum      Tiruchy, Bikaner & Jodhpur
• Heavy Water   Tuticorin, Kota
• Iron ore   Singhbhum (Bihar)
• Lignite Neyveli (Tamil Nadu)
• Marble    Jaipur (Rajasthan)
• Mica Koderma (Bihar), Nellore (Andhra Pradesh)
• Petroleum Digboi, Mumbai High, Cauvery Basin
• Red stone Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
• Salt Sambhar Lake (Rajasthan),
• Vedaranyam, Kovalam
• Tin Hazaribagh (Bihar)
• Thorium Trivandrum (Kerala)
• Tungsten Nagpur, Maharashtra and Marwar
• Uranium Bihar
• Zinc Zawar mines (Udaipur)
• Zircon Kerala sea shores & Cape Comorin

• When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’. The rivers originating from the Amarkantak range present a good example of it.

The Narmada originates on western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height of about 1,057m. It flows in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in the north. It flows south of Bhopal and north of Surat. The mouth of River Narmada is located at Bharuch, north of Surat.

Ox-bow lake : As the river enters the plain it twists and turns forming large bends known as meanders. Due to continuous erosion and deposition along the sides of the meander, the ends of the meander loop come closer and closer. In due course of time the meander loop cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off lake, also called an ox-bow lake. 

Lakes In INDIA :

• Tso Lhamo lake or Chho Lhamo or Cholamu lake or Cholamoo lake is one of the highest lakes in the world, located at an altitude of 5,330 m (17,490 ft), situated in North Sikkim, India, only some 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) southwest of the Chinese border. 

Teesta river comes alive at this lake fed by waters from Kangtse glacier or Pauhunri glacier and Zemu glacier.

• Pulicat Lake : The second largest brackish water lake or lagoon in India, after Chilika Lake, it straddles the border of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states with over 96% of it in Andhra Pradesh and 4% in Tamil Nadu situated on Coromandal Coast in South India. The lake encompasses the Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary. 
• Haflong Lake : Located in Assam, it is a major tourist attraction and is under protection of Dima Hasao Tourist/forest Department and Dima Hasao Autonomous Council. 
• Sardar Sarovar Dam : It is a gravity dam on the Narmada river in Gujarat. Four Indian states, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharastra and Rajasthan, receive water and electricity supplied from the dam. 
• Chandra Tal Lake : Situated in the Spiti part of the Lahul and Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh (India), the name of the lake originates from its crescent shape. It is situated at an altitude of about 14,100 ft in the Himalayas. 

Bhimtal Lake : The freshwater lake is named after second Pandava name Bhima. Surrounded by Kumaon hills the lake is considered as the largest that covers a surface area of 118 acres. The beauty is enhanced by a small island surrounded by crystal blue water. The lake provides drinking water supply and supports aquaculture with the variety of fish species.

Pichola Lake (Udaipur)

An artificial freshwater lake, it was created in the year 1362 AD. The lakes around Udaipur were primarily created by building dams to meet the requirements of the drinking water and irrigation of the city and its neighbourhood. It covers a surface area of 6.96 sq. km. The Lake is 4 km long, 3 km wide and approximately  8.5 m deep.

Northern region of India can be characterized by : 

• Presence of Himalayas with young and unconsolidated rock systems that makes tectonic lake possible. Wular lake (Jammu & Kashmir) is the largest freshwater lake in India. It was formed by tectonic activity. 
• Lack of volcanoes
• High gradient of river flow, which rules out sediment deposition and the formation of ox-bow lakes
• Cold weather and presence of glaciers (and their movement), which makes Glacial lake possible. A lake formed by melting of glacier is called a glacial lake. Most of the lakes in the Himalayan region are glacial lakes. 

Palm Oil :

• Indonesia and Malaysia are the leading producers of palm oil in the world.
• In India Andhra Pradesh is the leading producer of palm oil. Apart from Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana), Kerala, Karnataka, north-eastern states are important producers.

Karwar City in Uttara Kanadda :

• situated between Sahyadri ever green forest in east, blue Arabian Sea to the west, towards south ends with harbour and North the beautiful Kali river. 
• In 1999, following Pokhran-II, then Defence Minister George Fernandes approved Project Seabird to pursue the construction of the new naval base at Karwar.
• Karwar was part of the Bombay Presidency until 1956. 
• Karwar is known as Kashmir of Karnataka by Rabindranath Tagore. Tagore wrote his first Drama on Karwar beach.
• During World War II Karwar was an Indian Naval training site.
• Karwar is largest Naval port in India.

Jaduguda uranium mine :

• It is in Jharkhand. 
• It commenced operation in 1967 and was the first uranium mine in India.
• produces up to 25% of the raw materials needed to fuel India’s nuclear reactors
• Jaduguda has one of largest deposits of uranium in Jharkand

Naomundi is in Jharkand famous for haematite iron-ore

Korba is in Chattisgarh famous Gondwana coal

In the Gulf of Kutch, Pirotan Island is one of the 42 islands which compose the Marine National Park. India’s first national marine park comes under the Jamnagar district of Gujarat. The park gives an opportunity to witness the coral reefs, mangroves, incredible aquatic creatures and beautiful variety of birds in the unruffled setting of nature.

Pirotan lies 12 nautical miles off the coast (Bedi Port) and stretches up to 3 sq km. There are two islands, Pirotan Island is the most popular one. Narara is the other island out of the two.

SALT Production : There are 3 main sources of salt in India: 

(i) sea water, along the coasts of the Peninsula, 

(ii) brine springs, wells and salt lakes of the arid tracts of Rajasthan, 

(iii) rock-salt deposits of Gujarat and Himachal Pradesh. 

About 75 % of the total salt produced in India is manufactured in marine salt works by the solar evaporation of sea water. 

Dry and sunny climate is essential for salt production and the western arid region of Gujarat along with 1,600 km long coastline provides a conducive environment, making Gujarat the largest producer of salt in the country. The state contributes nearly 70% of the total salt produced in the country. 

Unseasonal rainfall and an extended winter could cut down the production of salt.