ART + CULTURE

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8.Languages and Literature

7.Modern India

6.MEDIEVAL India :

5.Ancient India 

4.Vedic Period :

3.Old Age

2.Indian Culture 

ART:

There are 3 types of art.

1. Visual 
2. Performing 
3. Misc Art and Culture

1.CULTURE : is from the Latin term ‘cult or cultus’ meaning tilling, or cultivating or refining and worship. In sum it means cultivating and refining a thing to such an extent that its end product evokes our admiration and respect. 

when ‘prakriti’ or a raw material is refined it becomes ‘Sanskriti’ and when broken or damaged it becomes ‘vikriti’. 

Culture thus refers to a human-made environment which includes all the material and non- material products of group life that are transmitted from one generation to the next 

Culture has two distinctive components, namely, material and non-material. Material culture consists of objects that are related to the material aspect of our life such as our dress, food, and household goods. Non-material culture refers to ideas, ideals, thoughts and belief. 

All the achievements of human beings as members of social groups can be called culture.

Civilization’ means having better ways of living and sometimes making nature bend to fulfill their needs. 

One who may be poor and wearing cheap clothes may be considered ‘uncivilized’, but still he or she may be the most cultured person. One possessing ostentatious wealth may be considered as ‘civlilized’ but he may not be cultured’ 

Three eternal and universal values of Truth, Beauty and Goodness are closely linked with culture. 

It is culture that brings us closer to truth through philosophy and religion; 

it brings beauty in our lives through the Arts and makes us aesthetic beings; and it is culture that makes us ethical beings by bringing us closer to other human beings and teaching us the values of love, tolerance and peace. 

In Indian context the contributions of below scholors are profound treasures of Indian Cultural heritage.

• Baudhayan, Aryabhatta, Bhaskaracharya in the field of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology; 
• Kanad and Varahmihir in the field of Physics; 
• Nagarjuna in the field of Chemistry, 
• Susruta, Charak and Vagbhata in the field of Medicines  (great medical TRIO of ancient India)
• Patanjali in the field of Yoga.

Vagbhata : 

• In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period.  
• Vagbhata was the author Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine). 
• He was the last of the great medical TRIO of ancient India.  ———> SCV
• The other two scholars Charaka and Susruta lived before the Gupta age. The Sushruta and Charaka texts differ in one major aspect, with Sushruta Samhita providing the foundation of surgery, while Charaka Samhita being primarily a foundation of medicine. 

Hath Yoga

• Matsyendranath was associated with the founding of Hatha Yoga in India, and occurs a bit earlier than the Medieval Bhakti period. 
• It originated in the 8th century Tamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.
• The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism. 

high official called Sandivigraha has been mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions — Foreign affairs of the empire 

Prachi Valley civilisation is believed to be earlier than that of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro flourished on the banks of Prachi river. 

Prachi Valley civilisation has contributed a lot towards amalgamation, assimilation and proliferation of different religious faiths and cults.

The Prachi river, a tributary of Mahanadi, originates about 10 km away from Bhubaneswar. The river flows through Puri, Khurda, Cuttack and Jagatsinghpur districts and it is this region that is called the Prachi Valley.

Jagannatha Puri :

• In other regions, regional cultures grew around religious traditions. The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa. 
• To date, the local tribal people make the wooden image of the deity, which suggests that the deity was originally a local god, who was later identified with Vishnu.
• In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri. Subsequently, in 1230, king Anangabhima III dedicated his kingdom to the deity and proclaimed himself as the “deputy” of the god.

• The Baudhayana sūtras are a group of Vedic Sanskrit texts which cover dharma, daily ritual, mathematics, etc. They belong to the Taittiriya branch of the Krishna Yajurveda school and are among the earliest texts of the sutra genre, perhaps compiled in the 8th to 7th centuries BCE. Baudhayana sūtras consist of six texts:

1. the Śrautasûtra, probably in 19 Praśnas (questions). ——> performing Vedic sacrifices 
2. the Karmāntasûtra in 20 Adhyāyas (chapters)
3. the Dvaidhasûtra in 4 Praśnas
4. the Grihyasutra in 4 Praśnas.  ——> deals with domestic rituals
5. the Dharmasûtra in 4 Praśnas is divided into four books. 
1. First book is primarily devoted to the student and deals in topics related to studentship , social classes, the role of the king, marriage, and suspension of Vedic recitation. 
2. Book two refers to penances, inheritance, women, householder, orders of life, ancestral offerings. 
3. Book three refers to holy householders, forest hermit and penances. 
4. Book four primarily refers to the yogic practices and penances along with offenses regarding marriage.
6. the Śulbasûtra in 3 Adhyāyas.  —> containing several early mathematical results like Pythagorean theorem, Circling the square, Square root of 2

• KANADA : was an Indian sage and philosopher who founded the Vaisheshika school of Indian philosophy. Over its history became closely associated with the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy.

• Integral humanism is a doctrine developed by Deendayal Upadhyaya and adopted by Jana Sangh in 1965 as its official doctrine 

Humankind, according to Upadhyaya, had 4 hierarchically organized attributes of body, mind, intellect and soul which corresponded to four universal objectives, kama (desire or satisfaction), artha (wealth), dharma (moral duties) and moksha (total liberation or 'salvation'). 

2.Indian Culture 

Chikan work of Lucknow, Phulkari embrodery of Punjab, Kantha embroidery of Bengal, Patola of Patan gujrat 

In the Western context development of secularism meant complete separation of the church and the state. In India secularism is taken as a more positive concept to cope with the complex social structure in the country with a view to protecting the interests of all, particularly the minorities. 

Three significant influences on our culture. They are westernisation, emergent national cultural styles and popular culture. 

• Vedas and Shastras may be sources of inspiration for Hindus, Koran and Hadees for Muslims, and the Bible for Christians. 

Hindu New Year Festival

• Andhra Pradesh and Telangana: Ugadi
• Karnataka: Yugadi /Ugadi
• Maharashtra: Gudi Padwa
• Sindhis: Cheti Chand
• Manipuris: Sajibu Cheiraoba
• Hindus of Bali and Indonesia also celebrate their new year on the same day as Nyepi
•             Parsis —> Navroj 

3.Old Age

Neolithic habitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan..first notable civilization flourished in India around 2700 BC in the north western part of the India on the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries.

1. Harappan civilization is the first known urban culture in India. 
2. Agriculture was the main occupation of the Harappans who were living in rural areas. Those living in the cities carried on internal and external trade and developed contacts with other civilizations such as Mesopotamia 
3. The bronze sculpture of a dancing girl found in Mohenjodaro testifies the sculptural skills 
4. Lothal was a dockyard situated in Dholaka Taluk of Ahmedabad in Gujarat. 
5. important town in Gujarat was Dhaulavira while Kalibangam was in Rajasthan. 
6. Numerous seals carrying the images of the one-horned rhinocerous known as unicorn, peepal leaves and a male god throw light on the religious beliefs of the Harappans 
7. Harappans knew how to write and most of their seals contain some form of script But unfortunately no one has yet been able to decipher that script 
8. The Harappan people knew the art of spinning and weaving and were perhaps the first people to cultivate cotton 
9. A large number of Indus seals found in Mesopotamia which indicated of a possible trade between the Indus valley and Mesopotamian civilization. 
10.   By 1800 BC the Harappan civilization began declining. However, we do not know the exact reasons why this happened. 

Phallic worship was an important element of Harappa religion. Many cone-shaped objects have been found, which are almost certainly formalized representations of the phallus. The linga orphallic emblem in later Hinduism is the symbol of the god Siva, who is more commonly worshipped than as an icon; thus it is a fair inference that these objects were connected with the ithyphallic "Proto-Siva" of the seals.

4.Vedic Period :

after the decline of the Harappan civilization , a new culture flourished in the same region and gradually spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains. also known as Aryan culture 

Aryans settled on the banks of rivers Indus (Sindhu) and Saraswati (which is now non existent) 

Scholars divide the vedic period into the earlier and later Vedic period. The earlier is represented by the RigVeda.

Brahmanas ,Aranyakas and Upanishads were written down later in this period. 

The functions associated with the priests were: 

The Adhvaryu is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the Yajurveda. The adhvaryu offers oblations.
The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from the Samaveda. The udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns.
The Brahmin is the superintendent of the entire performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by means of supplementary verses.
The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda.

Rig Veda contains about 250 hymns in praise of Indra who is described as a destroyer of cities and there are 200 hymns in praise of God Agni.  Agni is looked upon as an intermediary between gods and humans 

 Though Aryan society was patriarchal, women were treated with dignity and honour. 

The family was the smallest social unit; several families (kula) made a village (grama) and several villages formed a vis. 

family —> Kula —> Grama —> Vis ——> tribe or jana —— ruled by RAJANA assisted by the members of two councils called sabha and samiti to protect the tribe from external attack and maintain law and order. 

Purohita —> performed religious functions while the senani —> looked after military activities. 

There was no concept of the state or kingdom at this stage. Although the post of Rajan had become hereditary, he could be removed from power.

Towards the later Vedic period, society was divided into four varnas - Brahamanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. it is known to be Varna-Vyavastha with the passage of time this division became hereditary and rigid .

• Another important social institution was the system of chaturashrama or the division of life span into four distinct stages i.e. 

1. brahmacharya (period of celibacy, education and disciplined life in guru’s ashram), 
2. grihastha (a period of family life),
3. vanaprastha (a stage of gradual detachment and 
4. sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritual pursuit away from worldly life). 

these stages were NOT applicable to women or to the people of lower varnas. 

• Women were respected by the society, enjoyed freedom, had access to education and were often free to choose their partners through swayamvara .
•   Purdah and sati was not prevalent 

ultimate aim of life was to attain moksha or salvation through the pursuit of dharma, artha and kama. Karma or performance of duty without any expectation or return was preached in the Bhagavad Gita. 

•   Vedic people worshipped forces of nature and personified them as gods and goddesses.
• Indra,Agni,Varuna,Marut were some of their gods while Usha:Aditi,Prithvi were some of their goddesses 

solar Gods and goddesses referred to in the Rig Veda are Surya, Savitri and Pushau 

• prominent Gods of the early Vedic period like Indra,Agni and Varuna lost their prominence.
• a new trinity of Gods where Brahma enjoyed the supreme position, while Vishnu became the preserver and Shiva completed the trinity. 
•   kings performed Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya sacrifies to establish their position 
• They drank a beverage called Soma. Games of chess, chariot racing etc. were their modes of entertainment. 
• Bali or voluntary donation was prevalent. Cows were the measure of wealth. 
• Iron axes enabled them to clear forests leading to the expansion of agriculture throughout the Gangetic plains. Iron tools resulted in varied crafts and technology. Use of iron weapons and horses enabled them to fight wars and defend themselves better against enemies. 

• High quality earthenware called ‘Painted Grey Ware’ and ‘Northern Black Polished Ware’ have been found in many areas 

• Vedic period  earlier also known as Brahmanism because the Brahmins played a major role in it  and later as Hinduism
• Brahmins considered themselves superior to the other varnas and became arrogant. This led to the unpopularity of Brahminism and a need for reforms was felt 

Sati is not featured directly in the earliest religious texts and is referred to infrequently in the later literature leading up to the Christian era. The first instance of sati can be traced back only to the fourth century B.C. 

The Visnu Parana, Padma Purana, Bhagavata and Brahma Purana also cite instances of sati, thus indicating that the institution was slowly emerging in our society between A.D. 400 and 600. 

Early writers on Smriti - i.e. texts on codes of conduct, such as Vasistha or Yajnavalkya have not spoken on the issue of sati let alone endorse or recommend the custom. Vasistha allows the remarriage of women in certain unusual circumstances, such as a husband who is insane. However, rather than allowing remarriage, Yajnavalkya prescribes the duties of a widow.

Shraman Movement :

• 6th century BCE marks the beginning of new religious and social movements in the Gangetic valley in the form of Buddhism and Jainism which were part of the shraman tradition. 
• Both religions became popular as they opposed the varna and jati systems of the Hindu religion. 
• Magadha emerged as a powerful kingdom and consolidated its control over the other regions. By the 4th century BCE the Mauryas established their power and by the 3rd century BCE, a large part of India was under Mauryan control. 
• Ashoka emerged as the most powerful king of the Mauryan dynasty who patronised the shraman tradition in the 3rd century BCE.
• Religious practices had many dimensions and were not confined to just one particular mode of worship. 
• Worship of Yakshas and mother goddesses were prevalent during that time. So, multiple forms of worship existed. 
• Nevertheless, Buddhism became the most popular social and religious movement. 
• Shramana movement was a Non-Vedic movement parallel to Vedic Hinduism in ancient India.  
• The Shramana tradition gave rise to Jainism, Buddhism & Yoga and was responsible for the related concepts of saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle). 
• Sramanism, emphasizing thought, hard work and discipline, was one of the 3 strands of Hindu philosophy. The other two included Brahmanism, which drew its philosophical essence from Mimamsa. The third and most popular strand of Indian philosophical thought revolves around the concept of Bhakti or Theism, based on the idea of God, as understood in most parts of the world.
• Śramaṇas held a view of samsara as full of suffering (Dukka). They practiced Ahimsa and rigorous ascetism , believed in Karma and Moksa and viewed rebirth as undesirable. 
• Vedics, on the contrary believe in the efficacy of rituals and sacrifices, performed by a privileged group of people, who could improve their life by pleasing certain Gods. Beliefs and concepts of Śramaṇa philosophies are :
• Denial of creator and omnipotent Gods
• Rejection of the Vedas as revealed texts
• Affirmation of Karma and rebirth, Samsara and transmigration of Soul
• Affirmation of the attainment of moksa through Ahimsa, renunciation and austerities
• Denial of the efficacy of sacrifices and rituals for purification.
• Rejection of the caste system
• Jainism and Buddhism are the 2 main schools philosophies that have continued in India since ancient times

• Yaksha worship was very popular before and after the advent of Buddhism and it was assimilated in Buddhism and Jainism.

• Large statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis are found at many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. 
• These monumental images are mostly in the standing position. 
• One of the distinguishing elements in all these images is their polished surface. 
• The depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced cheeks and physiognomic detail. 
• One of the finest examples is a Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna, which is tall and well-built. 
• It shows sensitivity towards depicting the human physique. The image has a polished surface.
• One another remarkable Yaksha was found Parkham.

• Founder of Jainism is believed to be Rishabhadeva, first of the twenty four tirthankaras and as the last tirthankara Mahavira developed and gave final shape to the Jain doctrines. 

 Mahavira asked them to take five vows - not to tell lies; not to injure life; not to own property; not to steal; and to maintain chastity (celibacy). 

 He also asked the Jains to follow the three-fold path of Right Belief, Right Conduct and Right Knowledge. Right KBC

Jains were split into two sects the Shvetambaras (white clothed ones) and the Digambaras (the naked ones) 

The two sects agree on the basics of Jainism, but disagree on: 

-details of the life of Mahavira
-the spiritual status of women
-whether monks should wear clothes
-rituals
-which texts should be accepted as scripture 

Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC) : A younger contemporary of Mahavira. He taught the Four Noble Truths. His path was the middle path. He believed that there is sorrow in this world and that desire is the cause of that sorrow and it can be conquered by following the Eight Fold Path (Ashtangika MAarga).

(1)  Right understanding, 

(2) Right thought,
(3) Right speech,
(4) Right action, 

(5) Right livelihood,
(6) Right effort,
(7) Right mindfulness 

(8) Right concentration

BOTH (Jainism, Buddhism) movements were against the orthodox and ritualistic Brahamanical religion. founded an order of monks, established monasteries called sthanakas in Jainism and viharas in Buddhism 

Buddhism was also split into two divisions- the Hinayana and the Mahayana to which a third called Vajrayana was added subsequently. 

Later Hindu tradition even accepted the Buddha as one of the incarnations (avatara) of Vishnu. 

Subhadda who was at Kusinârâ, was last person who became disciple of Buddha. 

• Buddha’s Depiction

• During the early phase of Buddhism, Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus throne, chakra, etc. 
• This indicates either simple worship, or paying respect, or at times depicts historicisation of life events. 
• Gradually narrative became a part of the Buddhist tradition. Thus events from the life of the Buddha, the Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and torans of the stupas. 
• Mainly synoptic( general summary ) narrative, continuous narrative and episodic narrative are used in the pictorial tradition. 
• While events from the life of the Buddha became an important theme in all the Buddhist monuments, the Jataka stories also became equally important for sculptural decorations. 
• The main events associated with the Buddha’s life which were frequently depicted were events related to the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, dhammachakrapravartana, and mahaparinibbana (death). 
• Among the Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are Chhadanta Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.

Persian Invasion : 

1. Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, and his successor Darius I annexed parts of Punjab and Sindh. 
2. Persian title of satrapa (governor) continued to be used by the Indian provincial governors as kshtrapa. 
3. Persian scribes brought into India a new style of writing called kharoshthi derived from the Aramaic script, which was written from right to left.  Many of Asoka’s inscriptions found in north western India are witten in kharoshthi.

Greek Invasion : 

• The Achaemenid empire (of Persia) was finally destroyed by the Greeks under the leadership of Alexander of Macedon.
• Alexander’s army refused to march ahead when they heard about the vast army and the strength of the Nandas of Magadha.
• The combination of the Greek and the Indian style formed the Gandhara School of art.
• The social and economic condition of India of that time are known from the Greek accounts left by Arrian, admiral Nearchus, and Megasthenes. 

• King Harshavardhan wrote drama Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyardarsika. The Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha.
• Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide information on the Mauryas.

Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.

Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south.

Jains consider the king Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460-440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty as a patron of Jainism.

Mahavira regarded all objects, both animate and inanimate,have souls and various degrees of consciousness. They possess life and

feel pain when they are injured. 

Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury to the earth, worms and animals.

Similarly the doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths by the practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture.

5.Ancient India 

ASHOKA THE GREAT : 

1. he adopted the policy of Dhamma Vijaya that is conquest through dhamma. Ashoka was a true humanist.
2. himself a Buddhist, never sought to impose his personal religion on his subjects. 
3. He gave his empire a common Dhamma, a common language, and practically one script (Brahmi) he brought further political unification. 
4. He made gifts and grants to non Buddhist as well as anti-Buddhist. 
5. Ashoka is known to have built 84,000 stupas to commemorate various events of Buddha’s life. 
6. According to Megasthenes, Pataliputra’s grandeur matched that of the cities of Persia. 
7. The best preserved of all Ashokan edicts stands at Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar). 
8. The bull capital from Rampura is also another fine example of Mauryan sculpture. 
9. The most famous capital is the one at Sarnath, which shows four lions and the Dharmachakra which is adopted as the national emblem of the Republic of India 
10. Yakshi from Didarganj made from one single stone are polished with a unique surface gloss (now called Mauryan polish). all these centuries this gloss has not lost its shine. 
11. Ashoka’s Inscriptions were written in PRAKRIT language and BRAHMI script.
12. Lomash Rishi (with its impressive entrance) and the Sudama caves are examples of rock cut caves architecture.

Ājīvika followers believed that a cycle of reincarnation of the soul was determined by a precise and non-personal cosmic principle called niyati (destiny or fate) that was completely independent of the person's actions.

Mauryan pillars Vs. Achamenian pillars :

• Construction of stupas and viharas as part of monastic establishments became part of the Buddhist tradition. However, in this period, apart from stupas and viharas, stone pillars, rock-cut caves and monumental figure sculptures were carved at several places. 
• The tradition of constructing pillars is very old and it may be observed that erection of pillars was prevalent in the Achamenian Empire as well But the Mauryan pillars are different from the Achamenian pillars.
• Maurya columns and Achaemenian pillars, both used polished stones & Both have certain common sculpture motifs such as the lotus.
• Mauryan pillars are rock-cut pillars thus displaying the carver’s skills whereas Achamenian pillars are constructed in pieces by a mason.
• Achaemenid pillars were generally part of some larger architectural scheme, composed of much too many component parts looking complex and complicated While the Ashokan columns were intended to produce the effect of an independent freestanding monument with simpler specimen, more harmonious in conception and execution and gives the feeling of greater stability, dignity and strength. 
• Stone pillars were erected all over the Mauryan Empire with inscriptions engraved on them. The top portion of the pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the lion, the elephant, etc.

• Structure of Temples 

• While construction of stupas continued, Brahmanical temples and images of gods also started getting constructed. 
• Often temples were decorated with the images of gods. 
• Myths mentioned in the Puranas became part of narrative representation of the Brahmanical religion. 
• Each temple had a principal image of a god. 
• The shrines of the temples were of 3 kinds—
• (i) Sandhara type (without Pradikshinapatha),
• (ii) Nirandhara type (with Pradakshinapatha), 
• (iii) Sarvatobhadra (which can be accessed from all sides)

Post Mauryan ERA :

It should be noted that large scale assimilation of foreigners ( Greeks, Shakas, Parthians and Kushanas ) into the Indian society took place only in the post-Mauryan times. 

Many foreign rulers adopted Vaishnavism. In the Besnagar Pillar incription, Heliodorus (the Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas) describes himself as a Bhagavata i.e. worshipper of Vishnu. some coins of Kanishka also show the figures of Shiva. Kushan rulers was called Vasudeva, clearly indicating his vaishnava faith. 

the year of Kanishka’s accession i.e. 78 A.D marks the beginning of the Saka era. 

Menander converted to Buddhism. Kanishka too is remembered for his services to buddhism in 4th Buddhist council in Kashmir and also set up many stupas in memory of the Buddha. 

Buddhism split into two schools: the Mahayana or the Great Wheel and the Hinayana or the Small Wheel. 

Mahayana believed in image worship, rituals and Bodhisattvas, (incarnations of Buddha) while Hinayana continued the practices of the earlier Buddhism. 

The Mahayana received royal patronage from Kanishka.

• Gandhara school of art borrowed features from both the Greek and Roman art forms. 

Many images of the Buddha from the Kushan period have Apollonian faces, their hair is in the Graeco-Roman style and their draperies arranged in the style of a Roman toga. 

• Mathura was the centre of the indigenous school of art, was also influenced by the invasions had number of images from of terracotta and red sandstone. Mathura school became the first to make faces and figures of the Buddha. 

Besides the images of Buddha, which were made in large numbers, statues of Mahavira were also produced. 

• Buddha in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the confluence of Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara tradition. 
• The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern India. 
• The best example in this regard is the stupa sculptures found at Sanghol in the Punjab. 
• The Buddha image at Mathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features.
• Images of Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu and his various forms) and Shaiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas) faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are found in large numbers. 
• Mathura remained the main art production site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art production. Many Buddha images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering both shoulders and the halo around the head has very little ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha images continue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha images and the halo around the head is profusely decorated.

CAVES 

• In the 1st century BCE some modifications were made to the standard plan of the apsidal vault-roof variety where the hall becomes rectangular like at Ajanta Cave No. 9 with a stone-screen wall as a facade. 
• It is also found at Bedsa(Vidisha), Nashik, Karla and Kanheri. 
• Many cave sites have the standard first type of chaitya halls in the subsequent period.
• In Karla, the biggest rock-cut chaitya hall was excavated.  
• Karla cave consists of an open courtyard with two pillars, a stone screen wall to protect from rain, a veranda, a stone-screen wall as facade, an apsidal vault-roof chaitya hall with pillars, and a stupa at the back.  
• Karla chaitya hall is decorated with human and animal figures. They are heavy in their execution, and move in the picture space.

• Junnar(In Pune, Near to Shivneri fort) has the largest cave excavations— more than 200 caves around the hills of the town—whereas Kanheri in Mumbai has a hundred and eight excavated caves. 
• Earlier it was presumed that because of the absence of the Buddha image, the caves were considered belonging to the orthodox faith of Buddhism, i.e. the Thervadins, but with the discovery of the Konkan Maurya inscription mentioning the Saka era 322, i.e., 400 CE, it is now satisfactorily proved that the cave activity in western Deccan was an ongoing process and many caves had been carved with Buddha images where the image does not exist anymore. It may also be noted that many caves are converted into modern Hindu shrines and have become popular worshipping sites. 

Elephanta cave ( originally called Sripuri) is an island near Bombay. The Portuguese after seeing the large figure of an elephant named it Elephanta. The sculptural art of the Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place. 

There is a close similarity between the sculptures at Ellora and those in Elephanta. They might have been carved by the same craftsmen. 

The most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi. The sculpture is six metre high. It is said to represent the three aspects of Shiva as Creator, Preserver and Destroyer. The images of Shiva represented in various forms like Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara, Somaskanda and Trimurthi can be found in Elephanta Cave.

Satavahanas in the Deccan held an important position under the Mauryas. After the death of Ashoka, they assumed total independence and made their capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the river Godavari. 

Under Gautamiputra and his son Vasishthiputra Satkarni  Satavahanas became very powerful. 

Kalinga included modern Orissa and parts of Northern Andhra had most important ruler Kharavela.  Hathigumpha Inscription in a Jain cave at Udaigiri hills would give us a detailed account of his reign but unfortunately it is not easily decipherable. 

The period from the beginning of the Ist century B.C. to the end of 2nd century A.D. is called the Sangam period of the history of South India. In Sangam Tamil lexicon the word Pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country, Chera meaning hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit. 

Karikala (follower of the Vedic religion) was the most important ruler of Chola kingdom defeated the combined forces of the Cheras and the Pandays.  in Chola, village panchayat called sahha or ur had extensive powers. 

Pandyan empire was founded by a woman king. She maintained a huge army. She also encouraged trade and patronised art as well as literature. 

Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians were called Yavanas. Later they adopted to the indian society.

• Vakatakas, who tried to build a strong state in Malwa and Gujarat, with Capital at Washim but they did not last long were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India. 

• Vakataka is Brahmin dynasty and little is known about Vindhyashakti (c. 250 – c. 270 CE), the founder of the family. 
• Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami in Deccan. 
• The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.

After the Vakatakas came the Chalukyas of Vatapi and Kalyani. Pulakesin was a powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. Chalukyas kept fighting with the Rashtrakutas (towards the north) and the Pallavas (towards the south). The Chalukya rule came to an end in 753 A.D. when the Rashtrakutas defeated them. 

Many of the sculptures of the Ellora caves were created at this time under the patronage of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. 

Gupta Period :

Gupta art can be seen at the Dashavatara temple of lord vishnu at Deogarh( Lalitpur,UP ) in 500 CE and the cave temples in Udaigiri hills. 

Most famous examples of Gupta art that still remain are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath.

2 metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (near Bhagalpur in Bihar) 

the sculptures in caves created during this period are traced to the famous Ellora Caves. 

Painting as an art form reached a high degree of perfection during the Gupta times. The wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and the one at Bagh caves (near Gwalior) had paintings during Gupta period.

Pallavas were great patrons of art and architecture. The ‘ratha’ at Mahabalipuram style of temples built by them were
fine examples of rock-cut temples and  built structural temples like Kailashanath and Vaikunthperumal temples at Kanchipuram.

the set of bas reliefs found at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) which is attributed to the pallava period. 

Pagodas built at Mahabalipuram go back to the first century AD. 

North Indian temples were built in the Nagara style consisted of the shikaras (spiral roofs), the garbhagriha (sanctum) and the mandap (pillared hall), 

the temples in the South were built in the Dravida style completed with vimana or shikhara, high walls and the gateway topped by gopuram. 

After the Pallavas (6th to 8th century AD) the tradition of building temples was further developed by the Cholas (l0th – 12th century AD) in the south. 

Style	Found in	Period	Examples
Nagara	Himalaya to Vindhya	Gupta period	Dashawatar temple Deogarh , Lingaraj Temple Bhubneshwar, Bhitargaon Temple
Vesara	Vindhya to Krishna		Durga Temple at Aihole (KA)
Dravida	Krishna to Kaveri

Kandariya Mahadev Temple built by Chandela Dynasty in Khajuraho.

• Teli ka Mandir, also known as Telika Temple, is a Hindu temple located within the Gwalior Fort in MP.  Dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Matrikas, it has been variously dated between the early 8th and early 9th century CE.

it has a rectangular sanctum instead of the typical square.

It integrates the architectural elements of the Nagara style and the Valabhi prasada that looks like the Dravidian wagon-vault topped Gopuram superstructure. The temple is based on a Pratihara-Gopagiri style North Indian architecture.^[

• Bhitargaon Temple is a terraced brick building fronted with a terracotta panel. Built in the 5th century during the Gupta period. it is the oldest remaining brick/terracotta Hindu shrine with a roof and a high Shikhara, though its upper chamber did sustain some damage in the 18th century.  The temple is built on a square plan with double-recessed corners and faces east. There tall pyramidal spire over the garbhagriha. The walls are decorated with terracotta panels depicting aquatic monsters, Shiva and Vishnu etc. When Cunningham first visited the site, the remains of the porch and of the ardhamandapa were still visible, which later collapsed.

Christianity was brought to India by Saint Thomas in first century A.D. St. Tomas preached christianity in many parts of India. He was killed at Mylapore (near Madras). 

A large community of christians known as Syrian Christians continue to reside in Kerala even today. 

FAMOUS INSCRIPTIONS IN INDIA

1. Junagarh Rock inscription

The Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman is considered as an early example of chaste Sanskrit, written in mid second century AD. It mentions that one of Chandragupta Maurya’s governors, Pushya Gupta, was responsible for building a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawar. From another inscription of Skandagupta we came to know that this very dam was repaired during his reign, almost 800 years after it was built.

2.  Mehrauli Inscription / Garuda Pillar

The Mehrauli Iron Pillar was originally placed on a hill near the Beas and was brought to Delhi by a King of Delhi.  This pillar credits Chandragupta with conquest of the Vanga Countries by his battling alone against the confederacy of the enemies united against him. It also credits him for conquest of Vakatakas in a fight that ran across seven mouths of Sindhu. This pillar was established by Chandragupta-II of Gupta dynasty as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu.

3. Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayag Prashasti)

This was issued by Samudragupta and was composed by Harisena. It is written in very simple and refined Sanskrit in Champu kavya style. It lists achievements of Samudragupta. This Inscription is a eulogy of Samudragupta and mentions about the conquests of Samudragupta and boundaries of the Gupta Empire. As per this inscription, Samudragupta defeated 9 kings in North, 12 Kings in South, reduced all the Atavaka states to vassalage. It also mentions that more than five states in the frontier states surrendered and accepted his suzerainty. He had close contact with the kingdom of Ceylon and Southeast Asian colonies. The eulogy of Harisena describes him as hero of 100 battles. He performed Ashvamedha Yajna, this has been testified by a seal of Samudragupta bearing a Horse. This was probably first Ashvamedha after Pushyamitra Shunga. He is depicted in his coins playing Veena. He allowed the king of Ceylon to build a monastery at Bodhgaya. Another term used by Harisena for him is Kaviraja, which testified him as a patron of poetic arts and a poet himself.  Samudragupta also assumed the title of Vikramarka.

Jahangir’s inscriptions in Persian also written on it.

Bhitari pillar inscription of Skandagupta, was discovered in Bhitari, Saidpur, Ghazipur, Uttar Pradesh, and dates to the reign of Gupta Empire ruler Skandagupta (c. 455 – c. 467 CE).

Among other things, the inscription is extremely important in understanding the chronology of the various Gupta rulers. It also mentions the conflict between Skandagupta and the Pushyamitras as well as the Hunas.

4. Nasik Inscription

The achievements of Gautamiputra Satakarni were mentioned in Nasik Inscription that were composed by his mother Gautami Balasri. The Nasik Prasasti describes Gautamiputra as the ruler of the Aparanta, Anupa, Saurashtra, Kukura, Akara and Avanti and defeated the Saka King Nahapana and restored the prestige of his dynasty by reconquering a large part of the former dominions of the Satavahanas.

He was mentioned as “Ekabrahmana” means a peerless Brahmin.

5. Nanaghat Inscription

The Nasik and Nanaghat inscriptions are the major sources that gives detailed information about Satavahana empire. The Nasik inscription was made by Gautami Balasri and Nanaghat inscription was issued by Naganika.

6. Mandsaur Inscription

It was by Kumaragupta and was written by Vattasbhatta.

7.Takshila Inscription or Taxila copper-plate, also called Moga inscription or Patika copper-plate : is written in the Kharosthi script (a script derived from Aramaic). It relates the dedication of a relic of the Buddha Shakyamuni ("Master of the Shakas") to a Buddhist monastery by the Indo-Scythian ( "śaka") ruler Patika Kusulaka, son of Liaka Kusulaka, satrap of Chukhsa, near Taxila.

Patika Kusulaka appears as a "Great Satrap" in Mathura lion capital inscription. It is related to the establishment of a Maues(Moga King of Indo-Scythian near Taxila) era, which would give a date around 6 CE.

Udaigiri Cave Inscription : is 20 rock-cut caves near Vidisha MP contain iconography of Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaktism (Durga and Matrikas) and Shaivism (Shiva). Also important inscriptions of the Gupta dynasty belonging to the reigns of Chandragupta II (c. 375-415) and Kumaragupta I (c. 415-55).

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, formerly called Katak Caves or Cuttack caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, mentioned as Kumari Parvat in the Hathigumpha inscription. These are carved out as residential blocks for Jain monks during the reign of King Kharavela.

Erena Inscription : Eran or Erakina was the capital of Erakina (Airikina) Pradesha or Airkina Vishaya, an administrative division of the Gupta empire (in Sagar Dist. MP). It has inscriptions of Samudragupta , Buddhagupta , king Toramana(descendant of Alchon Huns heritage, as ruling over Malwa) & Bhanugupta.

Rabatak inscription is written on a rock in the Bactrian language and Greek script and found in 1993 at the site of Rabatak ( in Afghanistan) related to the rule of Kushan emperor Kanishka and gives remarkable clues to the genealogy of the Kushan dynasty.

 Halmidi inscription is the oldest known inscription in the Kannada language, found near Belur from 450 CE.

Tamil copper-plate inscriptions : mentions Chalukya, Cholas And Vijayanagara Kings

Prabhavatigupta : Queen of  Vakataka King Rudrasena II (356-378 CE) & daughter of Chandragupta II : 

• She issued Poona copper plate inscription in 13th year of her rule as the mother of Yuvaraja Divakarasena
• Also issued Riddhapur copper plate inscription in 19th regnal year of her son Pravarasena II & represented as the mother of Maharaja Damodarasena and Pravarasena II. 

6.MEDIEVAL India :

MEDIEVAL India 

• Pala Empire 

• (750–1174), Indian imperial power ruled by Pala, a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal.
• was an imperial power during the Late Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal. 

Pala Style

• The style of the sculptures during the period between the 9th and 11th centuries in Bengal (including Bangladesh) and Bihar is known as the Pala style, named after the ruling dynasty at the time, while the style of those of the mid-11th to mid-13th centuries is named after the Sena kings. 
• While the Palas are celebrated as patrons of many Buddhist monastic sites, the temples from that region are known to express the local Vanga style. The ninth century Siddheshvara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan District, for example, shows a tall curving shikhara crowned by a large amalaka and is an example of the early Pala style. 
• It is similar to contemporaneous temples of Odisha. This basic form grows loftier with the passing of centuries. Many of the temples from the 9th to the 12th century were located at Telkupi in Purulia District. They were submerged when dams were built in the region. These were amongst the important examples of architectural styles prevalent in the region which showed an awareness of all the known Nagara sub-types that were prevalent in the rest of North India. 
• The black to grey basalt and chlorite stone pillars and arched niches of these temples heavily influenced the earliest bengal sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua. 
• Many local vernacular building traditions of Bengal also influenced the style of temples in that region. 
• Most prominent of these was the shape of the curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut. This feature was eventually even adopted in Mughal buildings, and is known across North India as the Bangla roof.

• Ahom dynasty (1228–1826) ruled the Ahom kingdom in present-day Assam for nearly 600 years. The dynasty was established by Sukaphaa, a Shan prince

• An old sixth-century sculpted door frame from DaParvatia near Tezpur and another few stray sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near Tinsukia in Assam bear witness to the import of the Gupta idiom in that region. This post-Gupta style continued in the region well into the 10th century. 
• However, by the 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct regional style developed in Assam. The style that came with the migration of the Tais from Upper Burma mixed with the dominant Pala style of Bengal and led to the creation of Ahom style in and around Guwahati. 
• Kamakhya temple, a Shakti Peeth, is dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya and was built in the seventeenth century. 
• Shaktism adopted magic rituals from tantricism.

• Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the 7th century AD in Arabia. He was born in AD 571 in the Quraysh tribe of Arabia. He migrated to Madina from Mecca in AD 622 and this marked the beginning of the Hijira Era. Quran is the message of Allah revealed to Mohammad through his archangel Gabriel. The five fundamental principles of Islam are: 

(1) Tauhid (belief in Allah) 

(2) Namaz (prayers, five times a day) 

(3) Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan) 

(4) Zakat (giving of alms) 

(5) Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca) 

Prophet Mohammad’s sayings are preserved in what is called the Hadith or Hadees. After his death the Caliphate was established. There were four pious Caliphs. 

• Sufism preached spirituality through music and doctrines that professed union with God, originated in Iran and found a congenial atmosphere in India under the Turkish rule. It started the tradition of Piri-muridi, (teacher and the disciple). 

• The sufis were also influenced by the Christian and Buddhist monks regarding the establishment of their khanqahs and dargahs. 
• Khanqah the institutions (abode of Sufis) set up by the Sufis in northern India took Islam deeper into the countryside which served as a shelter for the Sufi saints and for destitutes, and later developed as a centre of learning. 
• Mazars (tombs) and Takias (resting places of Muslim saints) also became the centres for the propagation of Islamic ideas. 
• Sufis were organised into religious orders or Silsilahs named after their founders such as Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadi and Naqshbandis. 
• Hindu impact on Sufism also became visible in the form of Siddhas and yogic postures. 

• Important features of bhakti movement :

• concept of oneness of God and brotherhood of all human beings. 
• surrender into God, who is all pervasive and capable of solving the problems of the devotees. 
• intense personal devotion to God with an emphasis on a good moral life. 

Bhakti movement of fourteenth and sixteenth centuries developed into two streams; nirguna and saguna. 

Pahul was the sanctified water offered by a master to the pupil or shishya as a token of his being accepted as a trainee on his march to godliness. 

Sikhs performed “washing of the swords” ceremony, called khande ka pahul, evolving as the pir-muridi custom (the saint-soldier concept). 

Clothes :

In Rajasthan, girls came up with beautiful designs on odhanis, shirts and ghagras. 

In Punjab, the girls created beautiful phulkaris. 

In and around Lucknow, came up the chikan work on shirts, salwars, odhanis and even sarees. 

The tamasha and the lavani forms of dance drama were developed in Maharashtra; the Pandavanis in central India and Merasis in northern India 

Dancing : Garba, Kalbella, Bhangra, Gïddha, Bamboo dance, Lavani and innumerable other dance forms.

• Odissi :  the Indian classical dance is characterized by various Bhangas or stances. Four bhangas are : Bhanga, Abanga, Atibhanga and Tribhanga being the most common of all. 

  

• Chhau Dance of eastern India is all Males troupes, found in three forms. Purulia Chhau of Bengal, Seraikella Chhau of Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj Chhau of Odisha.

• Kathak :

• Kathak, now associated with several parts of north India, .its term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story. 
• The kathak were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India, who embellished their performances with gestures and songs.
• Kathak began evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the 15th and 16th centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement. 
• The legends of Radha-Krishna were enacted in folk plays called rasa lila, which combined folk dance with the basic gestures of the kathak story-tellers.
• Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court, where it acquired its present features and developed into a form of dance with a distinctive style. 
• Subsequently, it developed in two traditions or gharanas: one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and 
• other in Lucknow. Under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, it grew into a major art form. By the third quarter of the nineteenth century it was firmly entrenched as a dance form.

Nandikeshvara (5th century-4th century BC) was the great theorist on stage-craft of ancient India. He was the author of the Abhinaya Darpana (“The Mirror of Gesture”), a famous treatise on dance.

• Ashtapadis or Ashtapadi Attam

• It refers to the Sanskrit hymns of the Geetha Govinda, composed by Jayadeva in the 12th Century. 
• The ashtapadis, which describe the beauty of Lord Krishna and the love between Krishna and the gopis, are considered a masterpiece in esoteric spirituality and the theme of 'Divine romance'. 
• The literal meaning of ashtapathi is 'eight-steps', refers to the fact that each hymn is made of eight couplets (eight sets of two lines). 
• It is also the source of the word ashtāpada, an Indian board game, the forerunner of chess. 
• Although the original tunes of the ashtapadis were lost in history, they remain popular and are widely sung in a variety of tunes, and used in classical dance performances, across India.
• The lyrical poetry of the Geetha Govinda is divided into twelve chapters, each of which is sub-divided into twenty four divisions called Prabandha. The Prabandhas contain couplets grouped into eights, called ashtapadis.

Literature

• Silappathikaram : as Literary Fiction , It is One of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature according to later Tamil literary tradition. A poet-prince from Kodungallur near Kochi, referred to by the pseudonym Ilango Adigal, is credited with this work. The epic revolves around Kannagi, who having lost her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the court of the Pandyan Dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom.

Barahmasa was written by Malik Muhammad JAYASI. (check wiki)

Painting :

Primitive Rock Paintings : Bhimbetaka, Mirzapur, Panchmarhi

Painted Pottery at Indus Valley Civilization

6 Main Principles/Limbs or Shadanga of Paintings :

1. Rupabheda  --- Variety of form
2. Sadrisyan --- Protrayal of likeliness of subject 
3. Bhava --- Creation of luster & gleam/glow with colours 
4. Varnikabhanga --- Mixing of colours to resemble the effects of modelling
5. Pramanam --- Proportion of the object or subject
6. Lavanyayoganam --- Immersion of emotions

Lepya Chitra

Lekhya Chitra

Dhuli Chitra

Pata Chitra

Cauka Pitaka -- Isolated Framed drawings

Dighala Pitaka -- Long scrolls of paintings

Yama Pitaka -- Isolated Paintings

Pre-Historic Paintings : 

• Bhimbetaka paintings were discovered in 1957-58 by V.S. Wakankar.

• Petrogylps : Pre-historic paintings on engravings rocks

• Upper Paleolithic Period : 
• Quartzite walls, 
• Ochre or Geru minerals for Pigments, 
• Geometric Patterns, 
• Linear representations of stick like Human figurines 
• Mesolithic Period :
• Mainly use of Red colour
• Group Hunting, grazing activity, Riding scenes depicted
• Largest number of Paintings
• Hunting scene predominate
• e.g. Narsingarh MP
• Chalcolithic Period :
• concentrated on Battle scenes, Men riding horses & elephants

Mesolithic paintings :

• The largest number of paintings belong to Period II that covers the Mesolithic paintings.
• Hunting scenes predominate in Mesolithic paintings.

                                  INDIAN PAINTINGS

Mural Paintings : 

• The works on the walls of Solid Structure
• b/w 2nd century BC to 10th century AD
• At Ajanta Cave, 
• Armamalai Cave in Vellore, 
• Ravan Chhaya cave shelter in Keonjhar Odisha
• Bagh Cave, 
• Sittanavasal in Puddukkotai 
• Kailashnath Temple at Ellora Cave
• At Lepakshi temple's walls in Vijayanagara
• Either in caves or rock cut chambers
• Paintings were followed by theme of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or Secular
• Mundane premise paintings at Ancient Theatre room in Jogimara Cave

Miniature Paintings 

• Small & detailed Paintings
• Minium means red lead paint
• used in illuminated manuscripts
• Conditions are
• Not to be larger than 25 Sq Inch
• Subject to be painting within 1/6th area of painting
• Human figurines were shown as Side Profile

Miniature Paintings in North India :

• Pala School of Miniature painting :
• Apabhramsa School of Miniature painting :
• Mughal Era of Miniature painting
• Rajasthani School of Miniature painting
• Mewar School of Miniature painting
• Kishangarh School of Miniature painting
• Bundi School of Miniature painting
• Amber Jaipur School of Miniature painting
• Marwar School of Miniature painting
• Bikaner School of Miniature painting
• Pahari style of Miniature painting

Kangra School

Basholi School

Ragamala School 

Miniature Paintings in North India :

Tanjore

Mysore

Folk Paintings in India :

• Madhubani 
• Pattachitra 
• Patua 
• Kalighat
• Paitkar
• Kalamkari 
• Warli 
• Thangka
• Manjusha

 Mughal school of painting from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century gave rise to the Indo-Persian school of miniature art. 

The Mughal court painters introduced landscapes together with human figures and costumes. 

When they came in touch with the traditional Indian styles, they became more natural. Signing on the miniatures as a tradition also started. Some important works as the Changeznama, Zafarnama and the Ramayana. 

Mir Sayid Ali and Abdus Samad from Humayun’s court  nurtured the tradition of painting manuscript. 

Dastan-e-Amir Hamza, which has nearly 1200 paintings.  Seasons or baramasa paintings were given artistic forms. 

Akbar employed a large number of Hindu painters like Daswant and Basawan Lal. Consequently, there was a fusion of Persian and Indian styles (of painting).

Mughal school of painting reached its zenith under Jahangir who was a famous painter. His court was adorned with famous painters like Ustad and Abul Hasan. 

Mansur was famous for his miniature painting. However Aurangzeb due to his orthodox views and political preoccupations, stopped patronising music and painting. 

Besides the Mughal school, the Rajput and the Pahari schools of painting also received encouragement.  The havelis (big mansions) of the rich and temples in Rajasthan were profusely embellished. 

While Mughal painting was developing under Akbar, in the second half of the 16th century, Deccani Painting art form was evolving independently in the Deccan sultanates.

Deccani Painting 

• The miniature painting style, which flourished initially in the Bahmani court of Bahmani Sultanate and later in the courts of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Bidar, Berar and Golkonda is popularly known as the Deccan school of Painting. 
• A form of miniature painting evolved in during the inception of Bahmani Sultanate in India. 
• Deccani style of temple architecture was a mix of Northern and Southern styles of architecture prevalent in India 
• Lasted until the extinct of the Qutb Shahi dynasty in 1687 AD.
• Deccani style, vasara, tended to be an intermixture of the northern and the southern, with early examples at Vatapi, Aihole, and Pattadakal and, later, at Halebid, Belur, and Somnathpur in the vicinity of Mysore. 
• The Jami Masjid at Gulbarga built in 1367 A.D. is a true example of the Deccan style. It has corridors on three sides. It is unique in that it has no open courtyard, the whole structure being covered. Instead of minarets, it has four domes in the four corners. 
• Other splendid specimens of Deccan architecture are the tombs of the Qutb Shahi Rulers of Golconda and the Charminar at Hyderabad. 

Madhubani School of painting 

• A style of folk painting old enough to find mention in some of the ancient Indian texts like the holy Ramayana. It is also known as Mithila, for its origin is said to be the Mithila region in Bihar(northern india). 
• Created using fingers and twigs, and items like matchsticks have come to be used in their creation in recent times. 
• Their various styles include Bharni, Katchni, Tantrik, Godna, and Kohbar, which would historically be painted only by women from the upper strata in the caste system.     
• Features are Hindu deities, peacocks, fish and human connection with nature.
• Instead of contemporary brushes, objects like twigs, matchsticks and even fingers are used to create the paintings.
• Since the paintings have been confined to a limited geographical range, the themes as well as the style are more or less, the same.
• Madhubani is now found on apparel, paper, canvas, and other products, which boast of designs inspired by Hindu deities such as Krishna, Rama, Lakshmi, Shiva, Durga, Saraswati, all of whom have been painted in Madhubani since ancient times.

Kalighat paintings :

• In Bengal, around the pilgrimage centre of the temple of Kalighat, local village scroll painters (called patuas) and potters (called kumors in eastern India and kumhars in north India) began developing a new style of art.
• They moved from the surrounding villages into Calcutta in the early 19th century.
• Before 19th century, the village patuas and kumors had worked on mythological themes and produced images of gods.
• After the 1840s, we see a new trend within the Kalighat artists. Living in a society where values, tastes, social norms and customs were undergoing rapid changes, Kalighat artists responded to the world around, and produced paintings on social and political themes. 
• Many of the late-19th-century Kalighat paintings depict social life under British rule. 
• Often the artists mocked at the changes they saw around, ridiculing the new tastes of those who spoke in English and adopted Western habits, dressed like sahibs, smoked cigarettes, or sat on chairs.
• Many of these Kalighat pictures were printed in large numbers and sold in the market. Initially, the images were engraved in wooden blocks. The carved block was inked, pressed against paper, and then the woodcut prints that were produced were coloured by hand.

• Modern-day state of Himachal Pradesh attracted artisans. By the late seventeenth century this region had developed a bold and intense style of miniature painting called Basohli. The most popular text to be painted here was Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari. With the help of patrons, Kangra school of painting was found here.
  
• From the eighteenth century a stream of European artists came to India along with the British traders and rulers. The artists brought with them new styles and new conventions of painting. They began producing pictures which became widely popular in Europe and helped shape Western perceptions of India.

European artists brought with them the idea of realism. This was a belief that artists had to observe carefully and depict faithfully what the eye saw. What the artist produced was expected to look real and lifelike.   

European artists also brought with them the technique of oil painting – a technique with which Indian artists were not very familiar. 

Oil painting enabled artists to produce images that looked real.

Raja Ravi Varma was one of the first artists who tried to create a style that was both modern and national. Ravi Varma belonged to the family of the Maharajas of Travancore in Kerala, and was addressed as Raja. 

He mastered the Western art of oil painting and realistic life study, but painted themes from Indian mythology.

He dramatised on canvas, scene after scene from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, drawing on the theatrical performances of mythological stories that he witnessed during his tour of the Bombay Presidency.

Abanindranath Tagore : In Bengal, a new group of nationalist artists gathered around Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951), the nephew of Rabindranath Tagore. They rejected the art of Ravi Varma as imitative and westernised, and declared that such a style was unsuitable for depicting the nation’s ancient myths and legends. They felt that a genuine Indian style of painting had to draw inspiration from non-Western art traditions, and try to capture the spiritual essence of the East. So they broke away from the convention of oil painting and the realistic style, used water colours and turned for inspiration to medieval Indian traditions of miniature painting and the ancient art of mural painting in the Ajanta caves. They were also influenced by the art of Japanese artists who visited India at that time to develop an Asian art movement.

MUSIC : 

Tansen, who adorned the court of Akbar, not only sang the classical ragas but also composed new ones. It is said that Shah Jahan himself was quite a good singer. 

Aurangzeb was against music, but the largest number of books on classical Indian music in Persian were written during his time. 

The ragas and the raginis were personified accordingly. Khayal, Thumri and Ghazal were also elaborated during Hindustani school of music . 

in the south, the Carnatic school of music developed. However, ordinary people retained the flair for folk music and folk songs to commemorate their local chiefs like Alha-Udal, Dulla-Bhatti, Jaimal-Phatta etc. 

• Raga Todi should be performed in the late morning.
• Bhimpalasi should be sung in late Afternoon.
• Raga Bhopali should be sung after sunset.
• Raga Darbari is played deep into the night, considered to be one of the more difficult to master. 
• Raga Darbari is a raga in the Kanada family, which is thought to have originated in Carnatic music and brought into North Indian music by Miyan Tansen, the 16th-century composer in Emperor Akbar’s court.

Carnatic music :  Purandara Dasa (1484–1564) was a Haridasa, great devotee of Lord Krishna (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu) and a saint. He was a disciple of the celebrated Madhwa philosopher-saint Vyasatirtha, and a contemporary of yet another great Haridasa, Kanakadasa.

Purandaradasa was the pioneer who blended the rich musical streams, namely the Dravidian and Aryan music, into a single stream known as Carnatic music. In honor of his significant and legendary contributions to Carnatic Music, he is widely referred to as the Pitamaha of Carnatic Music.

Trinity of Carnatic music, also known as The Three Jewels of Carnatic music, refer to the outstanding trio of composer-musicians of Carnatic music in the 18th century, being Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri.

CULTURE : 

Mughal rulers styled themselves as Badshah (emperor) and Din-e-Panah (protector of faith). Further, to evoke reverence among the subject for the emperor, they started the practice of jharokha darshan or making public appearances through specially built windows. They also encouraged the court practice of sijda (low prostration before the kings) and concentrated religious and political power more firmly in their hands. 

LANGUAGE :

 Urdu perhaps originated around Delhi , developed in the army of Allauddin Khilji when they were stationed in the Deccan around fourteenth century AD. the states of Bijapur and the Golconda in the Deccan became the cradles of Urdu literature. 

FAITHS : 

two new religious faiths flourished in India during Mughal era , They were Sikhism and Zoroastrianism. 

Sikhism : The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs three things. 

1. the shape of the Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five gurus and other allied saints. 

2.the standardised script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was first written. 

3.the site and the foundation of the Har Mandir sahib or the Golden Temple and the Akal Takht at Amritsar, the highest seat from where the dictats for the entire Sikh community are issued. 

the tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, which means “the pure”, in 1699 and ordained the Sikhs to take five vows, namely, keeping of kesh (long hair and a beard), kangha (comb), kada (a metallic bangle), kirpan (a sword) and kaccha (an underwear extending to a little above the knees). 

in Sikhism and it is believed that through music one can attain ecstacy or samadhi. 

Parsi or Zoroastrian religion : founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in the eighth century BC who preached monotheism in the region now known as Persia. He taught the worship of fire and the presence of good and bad in the form of Ahura Mazda and Ahura Man. He also taught the ethical doctrine of kindness and charity. These doctrines are enshrined in the Zend Avesta. 

Most of the Parsis migrated to different parts of the world. They also came to India and settled at Navsari in Gujarat, and later on spread to almost all parts of India. Dadabhai Naoroji, the famous nationalist leader and a Parsi, who exposed the hollowness of the British claim of civilizing India and not exploiting it. Jamshedji Tata, a pioneering Indian industrialist and a PARSI established an iron and steel industry in India in the face of the toughest competition posed by the British steel mills and yet continued to prosper. 

7.Modern India Reforms Movements

1450 onwards, three important developments had changed the shape of Europe: 

• (i) the invention of printing press
• (ii) the beginning and the spread of the Renaissance and the Reformation movements
• (iii) the discovery of new trade routes. 

Among these European countries, the Portuguese and then the Dutch, the French and finally, the British entered into a race to control the trade from India. Tipu Sultan the Indian ruler tried to use the rivalry between the French and the British but could not succeed.

England wanted to exploit India for commercial gains, that is, by buying raw materials and selling finished goods in India.

they introduced steam ships and railways in India which opened a vast market to the British and facilitated export of Indian raw material abroad. 

• in 1853 that the first railway line running from Bombay to Thane was opened to public.
• in 1853 that Dalhousie opened the first telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra and also introduced the postal service in India. 

• Indian reformation had 3 facets. 
• 1st was a liberal modernising phase in which reformers like Ram Mohan Roy attempted to change some of the traditional practices.
• 2nd was a rejection of all that was alien to society, and an attempt at indigenous mode of modernisation. 
• 3rd was to build an alternative model of modernity which would embrace the traditional and the modern. This path was chosen by Swami Vivekananda.
  

• In August 1828, Brahmo Samaj declared its opposition to idol worship and no image, statue or sculpture was allowed in the Samaj building. 
• The Ramakrishna Mission was founded by Swami Vivekananda in 1897, and unlike the Brahmo Samaj, it recognized the utility and value of idol worship in developing a spiritual fervour(Zeal, Passion) and worship of the eternal omnipotent(Supreme, Almighty) God. 
• By the end of 19th century, almost all early social reform movements had lost much of their vigour and following. 
• The decline in the reform atmosphere paved the way for the emergence of a powerful spiritual leader Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), by initiating a movement, based on individual worship in place of collective–congregational worship which Raja Ram Mohan Roy and his contemporaries had favoured. 

• Brahmo Samaj

• Founded in 1828 by Raja Rammohan Roy with name of Brahmo Sabha, which carried his message of rationalism and the principle of social equality. 
• His followers believed in the worship of one supreme god (monotheism) and opposed idol worship, polytheism and ritualism. 
• Brahmo Samaj became the first organized vehicle for the expression of national awakening in India and laid emphasis on individual freedom, national unity, solidarity, democratization of all social institutions and of social relations. 
• Rammohan Roy was keen to spread the knowledge of Western education in the country and bring about greater freedom and equality for women. by his efforts Sati Pratha was banned in 1829 from India.
• In 1823 , Establishment of the Calcutta Unitarian Committee was done by Rammohun Roy, Dwarkanath Tagore, and William Adam. Establishment of the 'Calcutta Unitarian Committee’ by Rammohan Roy exemplifies this that his views on Vedantic monism were strengthened. 

• Leader of Brahmo Samaj — Ram Mohan Roy started in 1828  —>  Debendra Nath Tagore  joined in 1843 (1817-1905) —> Keshab Chandra Sen joined in 1857 (1838-1884)
• It did not out rightly reject Vedas, rather advocated to view Vedas from the lens of 'reason'. It criticized many social evils including Sati. 

—> Radha Kant Deb organized Dharma Sabha to counter the liberal ideas of Brahmo Samaj regarding abolition of Sati etc.

Raja Rammohan Roy

• He was known as the harbinger of the modern age in India, took up cudgels against Sati which was prevalent in Rajasthan and Bengal and ultimately got it banned.
• Established the Atmiya Sabha. The work of the Atmiya Sabha was carried on by Debendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore), who renamed it as Brahmo Samaj. 
• Known as 'Maker of Modern India' and the 'Father of the Bengal Renaissance’, he introduced the word "Hinduism" into the English language in the 19th century
• He combined the teachings of the Upanishads, the Bible and the Koran in developing unity among the people of different religions. 
• Raj Rammohan Roy is most remembered for helping Lord William Bentinck to declare the practice of Sati a punishable offence in 1829. 
• He also protested against the child marriage and female infanticide. 
• He favoured the remarriage of widows, female education and women’s right to property. 
• Rammohan Roy started the first Bengali weekly Samvad Kaumudi and edited a Persian weekly Mirat-ul-akhbar. 
• He stood for the freedom of the press. 
• He believed in the equality of mankind & did not believe in the supremacy of the Brahmin priests. 
• He favoured inter-caste marriages. 

• He preached the unity of God, made early translations of Vedic scriptures into English, co-founded the Calcutta Unitarian Society
  

—> Unitarianism is historically a Christian theological movement named for the affirmation that God is one entity, in direct contrast to Trinitarianism, which defines God as three persons in one being. 

—> Vedantic monism also talks about one being or one God departing from concepts of duality (dwaita).

Debendra Nath Tagore  

• joined Brahmo Samaj in 1843  
• His movement, Brahmo Samaj, was formed in 1843 by merging his Tattwabodhini Sabha with the Brahmo Sabha, 10 years after the death of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, founder of the Brahmo Sabha. 
• He was one of the founders in 1848 of the Brahmo religion, which today is synonymous with Brahmoism.

Pt. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar : In 1839 the affairs of Brahmo Samaj were being managed by the Tattwabodhini Sabha and Pt. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar was its secretary. In 1859 the Tattwabodhini Sabha was abolished and the propagatroy work was taken up by Brahmo Samaj - the printing press, library and other properties were made over to the Trustees of the same. Vidyasagar could not agree with the changes introduced and resigned from his post. 

Keshub Chandra Sen  : 

• Joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1857 by privately signing the Brahmo covenant and took to studying mental and moral philosophy. 
• During this time in 1860, Sangat Sabha was established - which was a society of fellow believers to promote mutual spiritual intercourse amongst its members. 
• In 1868, Keshub laid the foundation stone of his new church, the Tabernacle of New Dispensation. 
• Indian Reform Association was founded in 1870 with Keshub Chunder Sen as president. It represented the secular side of the Brahmo Samaj and included many who did not belong to the Brahmo Samaj. 

Tattwabodhinī Sabhā ("Truth Propagating/Searching Society")  aka Tattwaranjini  (1839 to 1859 )

• was a group started in Calcutta on 6 October 1839 as a splinter group of the Brahmo Samaj, reformers of Hinduism and Indian Society.
• The founding member was Debendranath Tagore, previously of the Brahmo Samaj, eldest son of influential entrepreneur Dwarkanath Tagore, and eventually father to renowned polymath Rabindranath Tagore. 
• In 1859, the Tattwabodhinī Sabhā were dissolved back into the Brāhmo Samāj by Debendranath Tagore.
• Its main objective was to promote a rational and humanist form of Hinduism based on the Vedanta. 

• Arya Samaj 

• (by Dayanand Saraswati having knowledge of vedas) especially has contributed a lot towards it by their Shuddhi Movement, that is, a form of purification by which those Hindus who had converted to Islam or Christianity could come back to their own religion. 
• Its main aim was to propagate the true knowledge of the Vedas and discard all evils that had crept into the Hindu society later in its name.
• He opposed untouchability similarly opposed to polytheism, Avataravada and ritualism. 
• His slogan was ‘go back to the Vedas’ whose authority he accepted. 
• First time in India, the Vedas were printed in India under his patronage. 
• His most important work was Satyartha Prakasha (The Light of Truth). 
• His followers started a Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School and College in Lahore (now in Pakistan) in 1886. 

Arya Samaj split into two in Punjab after 1893 on the question of eating meat. The group that refrained from meat was called the Mahatma group and the one favoring consumption of meat as the "Cultured Party". 

• Prarthana Samaj 

• was established as an off-shoot (side) of Brahmo Samaj in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang in 1867 with the help of Keshav Chandra Sen in 1867, with an aim to make people believe in one God(monotheism) and worship only one God. 
• It became popular after Mahadev Govind Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and infused new strength to it. 
• 2Justice Ranade promoted the Deccan Education Society. 
• The main reformers were the intellectuals who advocate reforms of the social system of the Hindus. 
• It introduced social reforms like remove caste restrictions by inter-caste dining, inter-caste marriage, abolish child marriage, widow remarriage, encourage the education of women and  improvement of the lot of women and depressed classes. 
• Also believed in the unity of God and de-emphasised idol worship as well as caste system.

Prathana Samaj in Bhakti era and Paramhans Mandali founded in 1840 worked towards abolition of Caste system

Paramhans Mandali :

• founded in Bombay in 1840s by Dadoba Panderung (1842-82) and Bal Shastri Jambhekar of Maharashtra in 1849. 
• It said God alone should be worshipped and real religion is based on love and moral conduct. 

Mahadev Govind Ranade :

• was a founding member of INC in 1885 and owned several designations as member of the Bombay legislative council, member of the finance committee at the centre, and the judge of Bombay High Court.
• During his life he helped to establish the Vaktruttvottejak Sabha, the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and the Prarthana Samaj, and would edit a Bombay Anglo-Marathi daily paper, the Induprakash, founded on his ideology of social and religious reform.
• He relied upon legislation to do away with social ills. To encourage consideration of social problems on a national scale, he inaugurated the Indian National Social Conference, which for many years met for its annual sessions alongside INC. 
• In 1887 he founded the Indian National Social Conference, whose meetings were concurrent with the annual Congress sessions. 
• In 1890 he inaugurated the Industrial Association of Western India, having come to the conclusion that a constructive solution to India's problems lay in a vigorous policy of industrial and commercial development. 
• He regularly used the INSC to voice views on social and economic reform at its annual sessions. 

• Veda Samaj 

• Established in Madras (Chennai) in 1864, the Veda Samaj was inspired by the Brahmo Samaj. 
• It worked to abolish caste distinctions and promote widow remarriage and women’s education. 
• Its members believed in one God( monotheism)
• They condemned superstitions of hinduism orthodox.

• SatyaSodhak Samaj 

• founded by JyotiRao Phule in 1873 against caste discrimination and propagated caste equality.
• The main objectives of the organisation were to liberate the Shudras and Ati Shudras and to prevent their exploitation by Arya Brahmins.
• Through the Samaj, Jotirao refused to regard the Vedas as sacrosanct. 
• He opposed idolatry and denounced the chaturvarnya system. 

The SatyaShodhak Samaj movement was totally a social movement and nothing to do with the politics, but the members of SatyaShodhak Samaj dissolved SatyaShodhak Samaj and merged it with Congress party in 1930. 

‘Jyotiba’, Jyotirao Govindrao Phule 

• born in Pune (1827) in a lower caste family of Malis, opened a school especially for the lower castes and also started the Satya Shodhak Samaj in 1873.  
• In this new parallel faith he coined a new name for God as 'Nirmik' rougly translating as 'Creator'. 
• He rejected all names of God which had roots in the accepted Hindu scriptures. 
• He wrote a book ‘ GULAMGIRI ‘ to address the american people who fought against slavery prevailed there from long time. 
• He linked Lower caste in India and black slaves in America.
• He even was against the plight of upper Caste women.

• In 1930 the Sharda Act was passed fixing the minimum age for marriage for boys at 18 and girls at 14. 

Maharishi Karve was awarded the Bharat Ratna for his great work in the field of women’s education, He started schools for girls, as well as working houses for widows and destitute. 

• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar forced British to pass widow remarriage act and reformed Bengali alphabet and language reconstruction.

Pandita RamaBai : a women social reformer concentrated on improving the condition of women. In 1890, she started Sharda Sadan, a home for widows. 

WIA Women's Indian Association was founded in 1917 by Sarojini Naidu. It sought votes for women and the right to hold legislative office on the same basis as men. These positions were endorsed by the main political groupings, INC. British and Indian feminists combined in 1918 to publish a magazine Stri Dharma that featured international news from a feminist perspective.

All India Women's Conference (AIWC) : a NGO based in Delhi, founded in 1927 by Margaret Cousins in order to improve educational efforts for women and children and has expanded its scope to also tackle other women's rights issues. The organisation is one of the oldest women's groups in India and has branches throughout the country. Maharani Chimnabai became the first president of the All India Women's Conference (AIWC) in 1927.

• Ramakrishan Mission 

• founded by Swami Vivekananda to regenerate Indian society. 
• He was a disciple of Gadadhar Chattopadhyaya, later known as Ramakrishna Paramhansa, promoted the vedanta philosophy, which he consideredto be the most rational system of thought. 

National Youth Festival is being celebrated on 12^th January, that is, on the occasion of birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda, the youth icon of India, organised by Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports

• the reform movement was also strengthened by the Theosophical Society founded by Madame H.P. Blavatsky (1837-91) and Colonel H.S. Olcott.   Annie Besant promoted studies of ancient Indian religions, philosophies and doctrine. She also established the Central Hindu School to encourage education. 

Narayana Guru was a great saint of South India. He was born in Kerala, came in contact with Chattambi Swamigal. Both Swamigal and Narayana realised that the all round progress of Kerala depended on the goodwill and co-operation among the Nayar and the Ezhava communities, in which they were born respectively.  The conflict between these two communities threatened to ruin Kerala. They decided to work to bring the two communities together. 

• Muslim Reform Movement : Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was the most prominent social reformer among the Muslims, realised that Muslims could only make progress if they took to modern education. He was against religious intolerance, ignorance and irrationalism , denounced purdah, polygamy and easy divorce. He started the Aligarh movement & established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh. It was meant to be a centre for spreading Sciences and Culture. It later grew into Aligarh Muslim University.  Unfortunately, in his later years Syed Ahmad Khan encouraged the Indian Muslims not to join the National Movement. In a way he encouraged the forces of communalism and separatism at this stage. 

In 1859, Syed established Gulshan School at Muradabad, Victoria School at Ghazipur in 1863, and a scientific society for Muslims in 1864. In 1875, founded the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, the first Muslim university in South Asia.  

During his career, Syed repeatedly called upon Muslims to loyally serve the British Empire and promoted the adoption of Urdu as the lingua franca of all Indian Muslims. Syed heavily critiqued the Indian National Congress.

SOCIAL REFORM : There were two main objectives of the social reform movements. 

(a) Emancipation(setting free) of women and giving them equality with men

(b) Removal of caste rigidities, especially the abolition of untouchability and the upliftment of the depressed classes. 

Wahabi Movement :

• The Wahabi Movement was essentially an Islamic revivalist movement founded by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly who was inspired by the teachings of Abdul Wahab (1703-87) of Saudi Arabia and Shah Waliullah of Delhi.
• Syed Ahmed condemned the western influence on Islam and advocated a return to pure Islam and, society as it was in the Arabia of the Prophet’s time Syed Ahmed was acclaimed as the desired leader (Imam). 
• A countrywide organisation with an elaborate secret code for it’s working under spiritual vice-regents (Khalifas) was set up, and Sithana in northwestern tribal belt was chosen as a base for operations. 
• In India, its important centre was at Patna though it had its missions in Hyderabad, Madras, Bengal, UP and Bombay. 
• Since Dar-ul-Harb (the land of kafirs) was to be converted into Dar-ul-Islam (the land of Islam), a jihad was declared against the Sikh kingdom of the Punjab. 
• After the defeat of the Sikh ruler and incorporation of the Punjab into the East India Company’s dominion in 1849, the English dominion in India became the sole target of the Wahabis’ attacks.

1. Lokahitawadi - advocated female education for the upliftment of women.
   
2. Radhaswami Movement - it preached high moral and social conduct such as, keeping oneself away from gambling and intoxicants.
   
3. Vaikom Satyagraha Kerala - T K Madhavan
   

• Bankim Chandra’s Anandamatha, Dinabandhu Mitra’s Neeldarpan, Bhartendu Harish Chandra’s Bharat Durdasha, Lakshminath Bezbarua’s works in Assamese, Subramaniam Bharti’s writing in Tamil and Altaf Hussain’s works in Urdu stirred the minds of the Indians. 

C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru planned to break the system from within the councils under the banner of ‘Swaraj Party’ , established as Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party.

Dr. Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayam Sewak Sangh (RSS). This was aimed at awakening and organising the Hindu people as well as imbibing in them an intense spirit of nationalism. The ‘Shakha’ technique was evolved for this purpose. 

ANUVRAT movement held that Dharma is not for ensuring happiness in the future lives but also for achieving happiness in the present life. The movement continued under the leadership of his disciple Yuvacharya Mahapragya. He was raised to the rank of the Acharya by Acharya Tulsi himself. The Anuvrat Movement was launched in 1949 (literal meaning is small vow, which is the limited version of the Mahavratas for the monks).

It was based on the five Jain principles Truth, Nonviolence, Non- possession, Non-stealing and Celibacy as applied in their limited version for the lay people.

16th-17th century India, Muqaddam or mandal 

Some sources suggest that the headman was chosen through the consensus of the village elders, and that this choice had to be ratified by the zamindar.  Headmen held office as long as they enjoyed the confidence of the village elders, failing which they could be dismissed by them. The chief function of the headman was to supervise the preparation of village accounts, assisted by the accountant or patwari of the panchayat. 

Ankia Nat 

• It is the traditional one-act play of Assam. 
• It was started by the famous Vaishnava Saint Shankaradeva in the 16th century A.D. 
• It depicts incidents from the life of Krishna. 
• One of the unique features of this form of theatre is the use of masks to depict special expressions.

Togalu Gombeyatta –

• shadow theatre of Karnataka.
• A unique feature of the Togalu Gombayetta puppets is the variation of puppet size based on social status, i.e. kings and religious figures are characterised by large puppets while common people and servants are shown by smaller puppets.

Ravanchhaya –

• shadow puppetry of Odisha region.
• The puppets are made of deer skin and depict bold, dramatic postures.
• They do not have any joints attached to them, making it a more complex art.

Yampuri – It is the traditional rod puppet of Bihar. The puppets are generally made of wood and are without any joints.

Kathputli – traditional string puppets of the Rajasthan. A unique feature of the puppets is the absence of legs. The strings are attached to the finger of the puppeteer.

8.Languages and Literature

Zend Avesta   — Sacred book of Zoroastrians or Persian 

descriptive grammar Ashtadhyayi —  great grammarian Panini in sanskrit

most important work of the Hinayana school is the Mahavastu which is a storehouse of stories. 

While the Lalitavistara is the most sacred Mahayana text which supplied literary material for the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa. 

Four Vedas, namely, the- Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda(all three known as collectively known an Traji ) and Atharva Veda.

Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the Upanishads and the Aranyakas. 

Lalit Kala Akademi :

• The India’s National Academy of Fine Arts is established as an autonomous organization at New Delhi in 1954 to promote and propagate understanding of Indian art, both within and outside the country. 
• It was registered under Societies Registration Act 1860. 
• It does so through providing scholarships, a fellow program, and sponsoring and organizing numerous exhibitions in India and overseas.
• It publishes a bilingual journal. 
• It is fully funded by Union Ministry of Culture. Its parent organisation is Culture Ministry.
• It is apex cultural body in the field of visual arts in India. 

• Its Chairman is appointed by the President. 
• Objectives are –
  1. To encourage and promote study and research in the fields of creative arts such as painting, sculpture and graphics etc.
  2. To foster cultural contacts within the country and also with other countries, through art exhibition, exchange of personal and art objects,
  3. To promote study, research and survey of folk, tribal and traditional arts and crafts techniques, preserve and project their art forms and to organize regional surveys of and to encourage surviving indigenous craftsmen, painters and sculptors;
  
  

Sahitya Akademi : since 1954

• India’s National Academy of Letters for literary dialogue, publication and promotion in the country and the only institution that undertakes literary activities in 24 Indian languages, including English and Rajasthani with other 22 Indian languages mentioned in 8th Schedule. 
• set up by GOI, the Akademi functions as an autonomous organisation
• It gives 24 awards annually to literary works in the languages it has recognized and an equal number of awards to literary translations from and into the languages of India.
• It also gives special awards called Bhasha Samman to significant contribution to the languages not formally recognized by the Akademi as also for contribution to classical and medieval literature.

IGNCA Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts 

• was established as autonomous institution in 1987 the Ministry of Culture for encompassing study and experience of all the arts, each form with its own integrity, yet within the dimension of mutual interdependence.
• inter-relationship with the disciplines of science, physical and material metaphysics, anthropology and sociology.
• establish a tribal and folk arts division with a core collection for conducting systematic scientific studies and for live presentations.
• The IGNCA has six functional units
1. KALA NIDHI, the multi-form library;
2. KALA KOSA, devoted mainly to the study and publication of fundamental texts in Indian languages;
3. JANAPADA SAMPADA, engaged in lifestyle studies;
4. KALADARSANA, executive unit which transforms researches and studies emanating from it into visible forms through exhibitions;
5. SUTRADHARA, administrative section that acts as a spine supporting and coordinating all the activities.
6. CULTURAL INFORMATICS LAB, which applies technology tools for cultural preservation and propagation;

IGNCA has three regional centres. 

1. The Southern Regional Centre at Bangalore was established in 2001 aims at intensifying the centre’s studies on the southern region’s art and cultural heritage. 
2. Varanasi Regional Centre, established in 1998, is mainly engaged in publication of Kalatattvakosa series, a lexicon of fundamental concepts of the Indian arts. 
3. The field centre of the IGNCA for the North East is based in Guwahati to collaborate in programmes relating to culture-rich communities in the north eastern region.

IGNCA have Five trees that are most significant in Indian civilization, associated with the different divisions of the Centre.

1. The Asvattha (Ficus Religiosa), popularly known as the Bodhi tree, symbolizing the constant quest of delving into the self and human consciousness for enlightenment. It is associated with the SUTRADHARA.
   
2. The Nyagrodha (Ficus Bengalensis), the basis of the metaphysical metaphor of the upside down tree with branches which grow roots and roots which grow as branches. It is associated with the landscaping of JANAPADA SAMPADA.
   
3. The Asoka (Saraca Indica). Representing fertility, it pervades the classical and medieval arts. The tree symbolises the interdisciplinary approach. It is associated with KALA NIDHI.
   
4. The Arjuna (Terminalia), the tree represents clarity and purity, erectness and direction. It is associated with KALA KOSA.
   
5. The Kadamba (Anthocephallus camba), representing joy, mirth, play, dance and music. It is associated with KALA DARSANA.