VEDAS

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COMPARISON OF ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHIES

	Ajivika	Buddhism	Charvaka	Jainism	Orthodox schools of Hinduism (Non-Śramaṇic)
Karma	Denies	Affirms	Denies	Affirms	Affirms
Samsara, Rebirth	Affirms	Affirms	Denies	Affirms	Some school affirm, some not
Ascetic life	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms as Sannyasa
Rituals, Bhakti	Affirms	Affirms, optional (Pali: Bhatti)	Denies	Affirms, optional	Theistic school: Affirms, optional Others: Deny
Ahimsa and Vegetarianism	Affirms	Affirms, Unclear on meat as food		Strongest proponent of non-violence; Vegetarianism to avoid violence against animals	Affirms as highest virtue, but Just War affirmed Vegetarianism encouraged, but choice left to the Hindu
Free will	Denies	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms	Affirms
Maya	Affirms	Affirms (prapañca)	Denies	Affirms	Affirms
Atman (Soul, Self)	Affirms	Denies	Denies	Affirms	Affirms
Creator God	Denies	Denies	Denies	Denies	Theistic schools: Affirm Others: Deny
Epistemology (Pramana)	Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Śabda	Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa	Pratyakṣa	Pratyakṣa, Anumāṇa, Śabda	Various, Vaisheshika (two) to Vedanta (six): Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, derivation), Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof), Śabda (Reliable testimony)
Epistemic authority	Denies: Vedas	Affirms: Buddha text Denies: Vedas	Denies: Vedas	Affirms: Jain Agamas Denies: Vedas	Affirm: Vedas and Upanishads, Affirm: other texts
Salvation (Soteriology)	Samsdrasuddhi	Nirvana (realize Śūnyatā)		Siddha	Moksha, Nirvana, Kaivalya Advaita, Yoga, others: Jivanmukti Dvaita, theistic: Videhamukti
Metaphysics (Ultimate Reality)		Śūnyatā		Anekāntavāda	Brahman

The Vedic period or Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE):

• is the period in the history of the Indian subcontinent intervening between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilization and a second urbanisation which began in 600 BCE.
• It gets its name from the Vedas, which are liturgical texts containing details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period.
• The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted by speakers of an Old Indo-Aryan language who had migrated into the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent early in this period.
• The associated Vedic culture was tribal and pastoral until c. 1200 or 1100 BCE*, and centred in Punjab.
• It then spread eastward to the Ganges Plain, becoming more agricultural and settled.
• The Vedic period saw the *emergence of a hierarchy of social classes and coalesce into Janapada* (monarchical, state-level polities).
• Archaeological cultures identified with phases of Vedic material culture include the *Ochre Coloured Pottery culture, the Gandhara Grave culture, the Black and red ware culture and the Painted Grey Ware culture.*
• The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of Mahajanapada (large, urbanised states) as well as shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy.*
• Around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so-called “Hindu synthesis”.

Rigved :

• There was no child marriage and the practice of sati was absent. 
• However, the society was patriarchal. 
• The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the family was known as grahapathi. 
• Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families. 
• The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies. Women could even attend the popular assemblies. 

Also, there were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. 

During the Early Vedic period the seeds of regular system of administration were sown. 

• The king had certain officials like, 
• Mahishi (Chief queen), 
• Suta (Record-keeper of the king), 
• Bhagadudha (Chief Revenue Collector), 
• Akshavapa (Chief Accountant), 
• Kaata (Lord of the Imperial Household), 
• Sangrahita (the Exchequer), 
• Govikruta (Chief of forests) and Palagala. 
• The Purohit was the Chief Adviser and temporal guru (spiritual teacher) of the king. 
• The Senani was the military Commander while the Gramina was the village officer. The importance of these two officials is evident from the fact that the king had to take oath in the presence of these officials.
  

Early Vedic System : (1500 BC to 1000 BC)

• Patriarchal society , Son inherited father's property 
• Child marriage was not prevailed.
• Sati system was not started yet. Widow can remarry her brother-in-law.
• Milk based food products , meat of fish, birds and some animals
• Cows were called 'Aghanya' (not to be killed) for that punishment i.e. death or expulsion
• Alcoholic drinks - sura and soma 
• Primarily Agricultural and Pastoral people
• Worshipped the Gods related to Nature

--> Boghazkai Inscription of Turkey mentions 4 vedic gods ( Indra Vayu Mitra Nastyas ) , proves the central asian theory.

Vedic Literature has four literary :

1. Samhitas or Vedas (called Apaurasheya)
• Other than Atherveda are called Vedatrayi 
2. Brahamans
3. Aranyakas
4. Upanishads

Rig Veda :

• 1st testament of mankind
• contains 1028 hymns(recited by Hotri) , divided into 10 mandals
• 1st mandal is added later
• Six Mandals (2nd to 7th) called Gotra/KulaGranth/Vamsha mandals
• 3rd Mandal - Gayatri Mantra for Sun
• 10th mandal contains Purushasukta which explains 4 Varna system.

Sama Veda :

• The book of chants had 1549 hymns (recited by Udgatri)
• Imp for Indian Music. 

Yajur Veda :

- are Sacrifical Prayers 

- recited by Adhvaryus

- have 2 parts

•  Krishna Yajur Veda
•  Shukla Yajur Veda

Atharva Veda

• Magical Formula book
• To ward of evils & diseases

Brahmana : means Sacrifice & explains the hymns of Vedas.

Vedas	associated Brahmanas
Rig	Aitareya & Kaushitiki/ Sankhyan
Sam	Panchavisha(Tandya Maha Brahmana) , Shadvinsh, Chhandogya & Jaiminiya
Yajur	Shatapatha  , Taittariya
Atharva	Gopatha

Aranyakas :

• is concluding portions of Brahmanas
• it means Forests
• written for students living in jungle

Upanishads :

• There are 108 Upanishads
• towards the end of the Vedas & hence called as Vedanta.
• Vrihadaranyaka is oldest Upanishad

Literature of Vedic Tradition(600 BC to 600 AD) : are six literary works

1. Vedangas / Sutras
2. Smritis Dharmshashtras
3. MahaKavya (Ramayana as AdiKavya & Mahabharata as Jaya Samhita)
4. MahaPuran
5. Upveda
6. Shad Darshanas

Six Vedangas :

• Siksha (Phonetics) : Pratishakhya is oldest
• Kalpasutra (Rituals) : 
1. Shrauta / Shulba -- Sacrifices  
2. Grihya -- Family ceremonies
3. Dharma --Varnas, Ashramas
• Vyakaran(Grammer) : Ashtadhyayi of Panini is oldest grammer. 
• Nirukta (Etymology) : 
1. Nighantu -- 
2. Nirukta
• Chhanda (Metrics) : by Pingala
• Jyotisha(Astronomy) : Vedanga Jyotisha by Lagadh Muni

Six Smritis :

• Manu : Oldest in Pre-Gupta,  
• Yajnavalkya : Pre-Gupta
• Narad : Gupta Period
• Parashara : Gupta Period
• Brihaspati : Gupta Period
• Katyayana : Gupta Period

18 Puranas :

• Matasya is Oldest Puranic text
• Bhagawata, Vishnu , Brahamnda etc.

Upvedas : 

Upveda	Associated Vedas
Ayurveda ( Medicine )	Rig
Gandharvaveda ( Music )	Sama
Dhanurveda ( Archery )	Yajur
Shilpaveda ( Craft )	Atharveda

Six Shad-Darshanas (Hindu Philosophy )

• Sankhya
• Yoga
• Nyaya
• Vaisheshika
• Purva Mimansa
• Uttar Mimansa or Vedanta

• Pushana (earlier cattle protector) - now the God of SHUDRAs.
• Vrihadarnyaka - Doctrine of TRANSMIGRATION

Painted Grey Ware culture (PGW) 1200 BC to 600 BC:

• is an Iron Age culture of the western Gangetic plain and the Ghaggar-Hakra valley, lasting from roughly 1200 BCE to 600 BCE.
• It is a successor of the Black and red ware culture (BRW) within this region, and contemporary with the continuation of the BRW culture in the eastern Gangetic plain and Central India.
• Characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with geometric patterns in black, the PGW culture is associated with village and town settlements, domesticated horses, ivory-working, and the advent of iron metallurgy*.
• * The PGW Culture probably *corresponds to the middle and late Vedic period,* i.e., the *Kuru-Panchala kingdom*, the first large state in South Asia after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• * It is* succeeded by Northern Black Polished Ware from c. 700-500 BCE*, associated with the rise of the great mahajanapada states and of the Magadha Empire.

Ganweriwala :

• is situated near the Indian border on the dry river bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra (in Pakistan’s Punjab province) , now a part of the vast desert.
• It is spread over 80 hectares *and comparable in size with the largest sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as Mohenjo-Daro.
• * But it is not excavated and only identified and it may turn up as top five largest towns of Indus Valley Civilisation.

Hindu philosophy — 

• A group of darśanas (philosophies, world views, teachings) also called Astika (orthodox) philosophy includes six systems (ṣaḍdarśana). Each darśana accepts Vedas as authoritative and the premise that ātman (soul, eternal self) exists.

1. Sankhya — an atheistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter.
2. Yoga — a school emphasising meditation, contemplation and liberation
3. Nyaya — or Logic which explores sources of knowledge. Nyāya Sūtras
4. Vaisheshika — an empiricist school of atomism
5. Mimamsa  — an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy
6. Vedanta — last part of knowledge in Vedas, or jñānakāṇḍa or Uttar Mimamsa , dominant current of Hinduism in post-medieval period.

Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from 2 or more of the 6 orthodox philosophies, such as the realism of the Nyāya, the naturalism of the Vaiśeṣika, the dualism of the Sāṅkhya, the monism and knowledge of Self as essential to liberation of Advaita, the self-discipline of yoga and the asceticism and elements of theistic ideas.

Examples of such schools include Pāśupata Śaiva, Śaiva siddhānta, Pratyabhijña, Raseśvara and Vaiṣṇava. 

• Pashupata Shaivism, developed by Nakulisa
• Shaiva Siddhanta, the theistic Sankhya school
• Pratyabhijña, the recognitive school of Kashmir Shaivism
• Raseśvara, a Shaiva school that advocated the use of mercury to reach immortality
• Ramanuja school
• Pūrṇaprājña (Madhvācārya) school
• Pāṇinīya

Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions. The ideas of these sub-schools are found in the Puranas and Āgamas. Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive epistemological literature called pramāṇaśāstras, as well as theories on metaphysics, axiology, and other topics.

Samkhya System: 

* Propounder was KAPILA who wrote Samkhya sutra.

* It holds that : “Reality is constituted of two principles - Prakriti (female) and Purusha(male), which are completely absolute and independent."

* Purusha is mere consciousness which cannot be modified or changed but Prakriti ,constituted of 3 attributes ,thought & movement, can bring change in all objects synchronised with transformations of above constitutes.

* It is atheistic - “do not believe in God”.

It is mostly *related to the Yoga school* of Hinduism, and was influential on other schools of Indian philosophy.

 Sāmkhya is *an enumerationist philosophy* whose epistemology *accepts 3 of 6 pramanas (proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These include 

1. pratyakṣa (perception), 
2. anumāṇa (inference) and 
3. śabda (āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).

Sometimes described as one of the rationalist schools of Indian philosophy, this ancient school’s reliance on reason was exclusive but strong.

Sāṅkhya (often spelled Sāṁkhya):

is one of the major *“orthodox”* (or Hindu) Indian philosophies.

Two millennia ago it was the representative Hindu philosophy.

 Its classical formulation is found in *Īśvarakṛṣṇa’s Sāṅkhya-Kārikā (ca. 350 C.E.)*, a condensed account in *seventy-two *verses.

 It is a strong* Indian example of metaphysical dualism*, but unlike many Western counterparts,* it is atheistic*.

 The two types of entities of* Sāṅkhya are Prakṛti and puruṣa-s, namely Nature and persons*.

Nature is singular, and persons are numerous*. Both are eternal and independent of each other.

 Persons (puruṣa-s) are essentially unchangeable, inactive, conscious entities, who nonetheless gain something from contact with Nature.

Yoga :

* Patanjali is the propounder who wrote Yogasutra.

* By purifying and controlling changes in the mental mechanism, yoga systematically brings about the release of Purusha from Prakriti.

* It is a means of achieving freedom or mukti by practising :- 

• Self control(yama), 
• Observation of rules(niyama), 
• fixed postures(asanas), 
• breathe control(pranayama), 
• choosing an object(pratyahara), 
• fixing the mind(dharna), 
• concentrating on the chosen object(dhyana) and 
• complete dissolution of self, merging the mind and object (samadhi)

* Admits the existence of God as teacher and guide.

Nyaya School:

* Gautama is said to be the author of Nyaya Sutras.

* It is considered as a technique of Logical thinking.

* This philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the universe.

* It holds that there are 4 valid means of knowledge :

1. perception (pratyaksha), 
2. inference (anumana), 
3. comparison (upamana), 
4. Sound, or testimony (shabda)

* Invalid knowledge involves memory, doubt, error, and hypothetical argument.

Vaisheshika:

* Kanada wrote the basic text of Vaisheshika philosophy.

* It is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of universe, which explain the phenomena of the universe by atomic theory.

* They believe that all objects of the universe are composed of 5 elements - Earth, water, air, fire and ether.

* God is the guiding principle and living beings are rewarded according to the "law of karma".

Mimamsa :

* Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta are associated names and Sutras of Jamini is famous concerned text.

* It is basically the analysis of interpretation, application and the use of the text of Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Vedas.

* It encompasses Nyaya-Vaisheshika systems and emphasises the concept of valid knowledge. 

This system lays stress on the ritualistic part of Vedas.

Vedanta or Uttara Mīmāṃsā 

• Vedanta literally means "end of the Vedas", reflecting ideas that emerged from the speculations and philosophies contained in the Upanishads. 
• An umbrella term for many sub-traditions, ranging from dualism to non-dualism, all of which developed on the basis of a common textual connection called the Prasthanatrayi.
• The Prasthanatrayi  is a collective term for Principal Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita.
• All Vedanta schools had three categories but differ in their views regarding concept and the relations between them: 
1. Brahman – the ultimate metaphysical reality, 
2. Ātman / Jivātman – the individual soul or self, 
3. Prakriti – the empirical world, ever-changing physical universe, body and matter

Some of the better known sub-traditions of Vedanta include Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism). 

Most other Vedantic sub-traditions are subsumed under the term Bhedabheda (difference and non-difference). 

Over time, Vedanta adopted ideas from other orthodox (āstika) schools like Yoga and Nyaya, and, through this syncretism, became the most prominent school of Hinduism. Many extant forms of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism have been significantly shaped and influenced by the doctrines of different schools of Vedanta. The Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism.

Vedanta :

* Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishads and upheld that " Brahman is true, the world is false and Self & Brahman are not different."

* The core message is "every action must be governed by the intellect - the discriminating faculty."

* Shankaracharya and Ramanuja were well known "ADVAITA VEDANTA" scholars.

* Shankarcharya's philosophical views came to be known as Advaita Vedanta which literally means non-dualism or belief in one reality.

Apaurusheya is a central concept in the Vedanta and Mimamsa schools of philosophy. These schools accept the Vedas as svatah pramana ("self-evident means of knowledge"). 

 Advaita Vedanta philosophy propounded by Sankaracharya 

• In the 9th century Sankara started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new orientation to Hinduism. 
• However, his doctrine of Advaita or Monism (or Monotheism ) was too abstract to appeal to the common man. Moreover, there was a reaction against the Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes) with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes).
• There were four Mathas or Peethas (religious orders) also known as  Shankaracharya Mathas/Peethas 
1. Dakshiānmnāya Sri Sharada Peetham (Main Matha) or the Shri Sringeri Sharada Peetham in Sringeri, Karnataka
2. Uttarāmnāya matha (Northern Matha) or Jyotirmath Peetham in the city of Jyotirmath, Badrikashram aka Joshimath, Uttarakhand
3. Pūrvāmnāya matha (Eastern Matha), or the Govardhan Peetham at Puri, Odisha
4. Paśchimāmnāya matha (Western Matha), or the Dwarka Sharada Peetham at Dwarka, Gujarat

Vishistadvaita philosophy propounded by Ramanujacharya 

• In the 12th century, Ramanuja, who was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai, preached Visishtadvaita. 
• According to him God is Sagunabrahman. The creative process and all the objects in creation are real but not illusory as was held by Sankaracharya. 
• Therefore, God, soul, matter are real But God is inner substance and the rest are his attributes. 
• He also advocated prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God. He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism.

Dvaita (dualism) Vedanta philosophy propounded by Madhvacharya

• He was a Hindu philosopher and the chief proponent of the Dvaita (dualism) school of Vedanta. 
• He was born in Karnataka in 13th-century India. 
• As a teenager, he became a Sanyasi (monk) joining Brahma-sampradaya guru Achyutapreksha, of the Ekadandi order. 
• Madhva studied the classics of Hindu philosophy, particularly the Principal Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras (Prasthanatrayi). He commented on these, and is credited with thirty seven works in Sanskrit. 
• His writing style was of extreme brevity and condensed expression. His greatest work is considered to be the Anuvyakhyana, a philosophical supplement to his bhasya on the Brahma Sutras composed with a poetic structure. 
• In some of his works, he proclaimed himself to be an avatar of Vayu, the son of god Vishnu. 
• He was a critic of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta and Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta teachings. 

Bhedābheda Vedānta is a subschool of Vedānta, which teaches that the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman.

• The Gopatha Brahmana गोपथ ब्राह्मण is the only Brahmana, a genre of the prose texts describing the Vedic rituals, associated with the Atharvaveda. The text is associated with both the Shaunaka and the Paippalada recensions of the Atharvaveda.

PURANAS :

The main Puranas are 18 encyclopaedic collections of legend and myth. Though the archaic form of the genre might have existed as early as the fourth or the fifty century B.C., the famous names of the 18 Mahapuranas were not discovered earlier than the third century A.D. 

The phenomenal popularity of these Mahapuranas gave rise to yet another sub-genre known as the Upapuranas or minor Puranas. They are also 19 in number. 

The Mahapuranas have 5 subjects. These are : 

(1) Sarga, the original creation of the universe, 

(2) Pratisarga, the periodical process of destruction and re-creation, 

(3) Manvantara, the different eras or cosmic cycles, 

(4) Surya Vamsha and Chandra Vamsa, the histories of the solar and lunar dynasties of Gods and sages, 

(5) Vamshanucharita, the genealogies of kings. 

Around this core skeleton of the five subjects any Purana adds other diverse materials like matters of religious concern, customs, ceremonies, sacrifices, festivals, the duties of various castes, different types of donations, details of the construction of temples and images, and descriptions of places of pilgrimage. 

DIFFERENCE b/w Vedic and Harappan Periods

The Indus civilization and Vedic culture constitute two great corner stone's in the history of Indian culture and civilization. 

When we make a comparison between the two, we notice more differences than similarities. 

• Our sources of information of the Harappan civilization are mainly archaeological, while the Vedic culture is mostly known from the literary sources - the Vedas.
• Harappans are said to have been the original inhabitants of India while the Aryans, the founders of Vedic culture, are believed to have come to India from Central Asia. 
• The Harappan civilization was urban in nature as is evidenced by its town-planning, drainage system, and granary and so on.The Vedic culture was rural. There is almost complete absence of towns in the Rigvedic period. 
• At best the Rigvedic Aryans lived in fortified places protected by mud walls; and these cannot be regarded as towns in the Harappan sense. The Indus towns were well-planned, divided into two well- laid out parts - the citadel and lower town with elaborate gateways.
• In the Indus civilisation trade, internal and external, crafts as well as industries were the main sources of economy, while the later- Vedic economy had predominance of agriculture and cattle rearing.
•  Harappans —>Matriatrical                Rig vedic —> Patriatrical
• The various agricultural operations, including the ploughing of fields, were better known to the later-Vedic people and they owed this knowledge to the non-Vedic people. For early Vedic people pastoralism(charagaah) was the more prestigious profession. In the Harappan civilisation the only instance of furrowing the fields has been found from Kalibangan.
• Indus people did not know the use of iron. It was purely a 'copper-bronze' culture, while the Vedic culture in its later phase is replete with references to iron. 
• The horse, which played a decisive role in the Aryan system of warfare, was not known to the Indus people. BUT A few bones of horse and terracotta figure of a 'horse-like animal' have been unearthed from Surkotada (Gujarat) and still it has not been convincingly proved that the horse was employed by the Harappan.
• Indus people were basically peace loving. Their arms (swords, daggers, arrow-heads, and spears) were primitive in nature. No evidence of armour, helmet, body armour or shield is available. The Aryans, on the contrary, were warlike people and were conversant with all kinds of traditional arms and armour and had devised a full-fledged 'science of war'. 
• The Vedic society was primarily based on kinship(family connection) where as the Harappan culture could not be basically kin-based.
• The Vedic religion differed from that of the Harappans. The Aryans worshiped Varuna, Indra, Aditi and a large number of other deities which stood for the principal phenomena of nature. They performed sacrifices and offered milk, ghee, etc. to their gods. The Harappans worshipped Pashupati, Mother Goddess, animals, snake and nature. The fire-altars were discovered from only one Harappan site at Kalibangan. 
• The Harappans practised earth burials whereas the Aryans practised cremation.
• The Harappan pottery called 'black or red pottery' was wheel made and very distinctive in nature. From all the Harappan sites fragments of this typical pottery have been collected in large numbers. The distinctive Aryan pottery is known as PGW (Painted Grey Ware).
• The facial features and the physical types differed considerably. The Harappans were short stature, black in complexion and comparatively thin with short nose, thick lips and tiny eyes. The Aryans were tall, well-built and handsome with long and pointed nose, thin lips, pointed chins, broad shoulders and fair complexion.
• The life style was also different. The Harappans ate all birds and animals including cow and calf. They attached great importance to individual and community bathing as is witnessed by the private bathrooms and great Bath at Mohenjodaro. They ate wheat, barley and bread. The Aryans preferred milk and its products, specially ghee or butter and enjoyed Soma drink. Meat of the animals scarified was eaten.
• The dress and costumes, the hair-do's and the cosmetics, the jewellery and the ornaments etc. of the two cultures differed. The Harappan women put on a skirt and men used a band of cloth round their loins. The Aryans used embroidered cloth along with the ones made of leather, hide or skin. Cotton was the basic fabric of the Harappans while the Aryans put on woollen garments too.
• Vedic Sanskrit is the mother of all non-Dravidian languages of India and almost all Indian Languages were deeply influenced by it, but the Indus script still remains undeciphered and we are completely in the dark about its literary developments. However, it is clear that the Indus people were literate whereas the Vedic people were illiterate. We do not have any word for writing in any of the Vedic texts.

The Shulba Sutras :

• Are part of the larger corpus of texts called the Shrauta Sutras  considered to be appendices to the Vedas 

* They are the only sources of knowledge of Indian mathematics ( from the Vedic period (

* *Unique fire-altar shapes were associated with unique gifts from the Gods*. For instance, “he who *desires heaven* is to construct a fire-altar in the form of a* falcon*”; “a fire-altar in the form of a *tortoise* is to be constructed by one desiring *to win the world of Brahman*” and “those who wish *to destroy existing and future enemies *should construct a fire-altar in the form of a* rhombus*”.

* The *four major Shulba Sutras*, which are mathematically the most significant, are those attributed to* Baudhayana (https://en.wikipedia.org/wi..., Manava (https://en.wikipedia.org/wi..., Apastamba (https://en.wikipedia.org/wi... and Katyayana (https://en.wikipedia.org/wi...

* Their* language is late Vedic Sanskrit*, pointing to a composition roughly during the 1st millennium BCE.

* The *oldest is the sutra attributed to Baudhayana*, possibly compiled around 800 BCE to 600 BCE.while the youngest content may date to about 200 CE.

*Animism:

• the religious belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence.
• Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork and perhaps* even words—as animated and alive.
• There is no proof that philosophy of Jainism or Buddhism has roots in animism.

Shaktism (“doctrine of energy, power, the Goddess”):

* is a major tradition of Hinduism, wherein the metaphysical reality is considered feminine and the Devi (goddess) is supreme.

* It includes a variety of goddesses, all considered aspects of the same supreme goddess.

* Shaktism has different sub-traditions, ranging from those focussed on gracious Lakshmi to fierce Kali, and some Shakti sub-traditions associate their goddess with Shiva or Vishnu.

Brahmanism:

• An ancient Indian religious tradition that emerged from the earlier Vedic religion.
• In the early 1st millennium BCE, Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by, and the status of, the Brahman, or priestly, class as well as speculation about Brahman (the Absolute reality) as theorized in the Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of the Vedas, or scriptures).
• In contrast, the form of Hinduism that emerged after the mid-1st millennium BCE stressed devotion (bhakti) to particular deities such as Shiva and Vishnu.

* The term Brahmanism is considered synonymous with Hinduism, by some scholars.

* Others consider the transition from ancient Brahmanism into schools of Hinduism that emerged later as a form of evolution, which happened imperceptibly, and one that preserved many of the central ideas and theosophy in the Vedas, and synergistically integrated new ideas.*

• Nayanars and Alvar : 

• The 7th to 9th centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) who came from all castes including those considered “untouchable” like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. 
• They drew upon ideals from the earliest Tamil literature, Sangam, and preached the language of devotion, love and non-discrimination.
• They were sharply critical of the Buddhists and Jainas and preached ardent love of Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation. 
• They drew upon the ideals of love and heroism as found in the Sangam literature with the values of bhakti. 
• They went from place to place composing exquisite poems in praise of the deities enshrined in the villages. 
• Between 10th and 12th centuries the Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples around many of the shrines visited by the saint-poets, strengthening the links between the bhakti tradition and temple worship.

Nalayira Divya is a collection of 4,000 Tamil verses (Naalayiram in Tamil means 'four thousand') composed by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th – 10th centuries. The work, an important liturgical compilation of the Tamil Alvar Bhaktas, marks the beginning of the canonization of 12 Vaishnava poet saints, and these hymns are still sung extensively today. The works were lost before they were collected and organized in the form of an anthology by Nathamuni. It was frequently described as the Tamil Veda, thus claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit that were cherished by the Brahmanas. 

Nayanars hailed from all castes. This was supplemented on the doctrinal side by a large number of Shaiva intellectuals whose names were associated with several forms of Shaiva movements like Agamanta, Shudha and Vira-shaivism 

—> There were 63 Nayanars, who belonged to different caste backgrounds such as potters, “untouchable” workers, peasants, hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and chiefs. The best known among them were Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and Manikkavasagar. ‘

There are two sets of compilations of their songs – Tevaram and Tiruvacakam. 

—> There were 12 Alvars, who came from equally divergent backgrounds, the best known being Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and Nammalvar. Their songs were compiled in the Divya Prabandham. 

Alvar Saints : The twelve Alvars were Tamil poet-saints, who lived between 6th and 9th centuries AD and espoused ‘emotional devotion’ or bhakti to Visnu-Krishna in their songs. The devotional songs of the Alvars were created during the Early medieval period of Tamil history and they helped can be called the pioneers of the Bhakti Movement in India. The collection of their hymns is known as Divya Prabandha. All the saints were male except one named Andal.

Nayanar Saints :The 63 Nayanars saints were the Shiva devotional poets, who lived between 5th and 10th centuries. One saint “Appar” is said to have converted Pallava King Mahendravarman to Saivism. The compilation of their poetry / literature Tirumurai is also called “Tamil Veda”.

Tirumurai :

It is a twelve-volume compendium of songs or hymns in praise of Shiva in the Tamil language from the 6th to the 11th century by various poets in South India.

It is not secular like Sangam literature.

Sangam literature :

* Deals with emotional and material topics such *as love, war, governance, trade and bereavement*.

* Some of the greatest Tamil scholars, like *Thiruvalluvar, who wrote on ethics, *and on the various issues of life like virtue, wealth and love, or the Tamil poet* Mamulanar,* who explored historical incidents that happened in India, lived during the Sangam period.

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Śramaṇa MOVEMENT (Sanskrit; Pali: samaṇa):

* Means seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic”.

* The term refers to *several Indian religious movements parallel to but separate from the historical Vedic religion*.

* The śramaṇa tradition includes* Jainism, Buddhism, and others such as the Ājīvikas, Ajñanas and Cārvākas.*

* The śramaṇa movements arose in the *same circles of mendicants in ancient India that led to the development of yogic practices, as well as the popular concepts in all major Indian religions such as saṃsāra (the cycle of birth and death) and moksha (liberation from that cycle*).

Ancient and medieval India was also the source of philosophies that share philosophical concepts but rejected the Vedas, and these have been called Nāstika(heterodox or non-orthodox) Indian philosophies. Nāstika Indian philosophies include 

1. Jainism — a philosophy that accepts existence of ātman (soul, self), and is based on teachings and enlightenment of twenty-four teachers known as tirthankaras, with Rishabha as first and Mahavira as the twenty-fourth.
2. Buddhism — a philosophy that denies existence of ātman (soul, self) and is based on teachings and enlightenment of Gautam Buddha.
3. Cārvāka — a materialism school that accepted the existence of free will
4. Ājīvika — a materialism school that denied the existence of free will

Jainism

•  Founder of Jainism is believed to be Rishabhadeva, first of the twenty four tirthankaras and as the last and 24th tirthankara Mahavira developed and gave final shape to the Jain doctrines. 
• Mahavira asked them to take five vows - 
1. not to tell lies; 
2. not to injure life; 
3. not to own property; 
4. not to steal; 
5. to maintain chastity (celibacy). 
• He also asked the Jains to follow the three-fold path of Right KBC i.e.
1. Right Belief, 
2. Right Conduct 
3. Right Knowledge. 
• Jains were split into two sects 
1. Shvetambaras (white clothed ones) 
2. Digambaras (the naked ones) 

• The two sects agree on the basics of Jainism, but disagree on: 
• -details of the life of Mahavira
• -the spiritual status of women
• -whether monks should wear clothes
• -rituals
• -which texts should be accepted as scripture 

• By the end of the 4th century BC  there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Shravana Belgola in Karnataka. 
• Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named Sthulabhadra who changed the code of conduct for the monks. 
• This led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (whiteclad) and Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked). 
• The 1st Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. 
• According to the Digambara sect of Jainism, there were 5 Shruta Kevalins in Jainism - Govarddhana Mahamuni, Vishnu, Nandimitra, Aparajita and Bhadrabahu. 
• Shrutakevalin is a term used in Jainism for those ascetics who have complete knowledge of Jain Agama (texts). 

Digambara (“sky-clad”) :

• is the oldest extant universal religion stream and one of the two major branches of Jainism.
• The Samayasāra and the Pravacanasāra are considered the bible of Digambaras.
• The word Digambara (Sanskrit) is a combination of two words: dig (directions) and ambara (sky), referring to those whose garments are of the element that fills the four quarters of space.
• Digambara monks do not wear any clothes.

Sthanakvasi is a sect of Svetambara Jainism founded by a merchant named Lavaji in 1653 AD. 

• The Sthanakvasi do not believe in idol-worship at all. As such they do not have temples but only sthanakas, that is, prayer halls, where they carry on their religious fasts, festivals, practices, prayers, discourses, etc. 
• This is because this sect believes that idol worship is not essential in the path of soul purification and attainment of Nirvana/Moksha. 

BOTH (Jainism, Buddhism) movements were against the orthodox and ritualistic Brahamanical religion. founded an order of monks, established monasteries called sthanakas in Jainism and viharas in Buddhism

Paryushana:*_

* Is the most important *annual holy events for Jains *and is usually celebrated in *August or September* in Hindi calender Bhadrapad Month’s Shukla Paksha.

* It lasts *8 Days for swetambara and 10 days for **digambara** *sect of Jains .

* Jains increase their level of spiritual intensity often using fasting and prayer/meditation to help.

* The five main vows are emphasized during this time. There are no set rules, and followers are encouraged to practice according to their ability and desires.

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Buddhism 

Gautama Buddha (563 - 483 BC) : was a younger contemporary of Mahavira. He taught the 4 Noble Truths. His path was the middle path. He believed that there is sorrow in this world and that desire is the cause of that sorrow and it can be conquered by following the 8 Fold Path (Ashtangika Maarga).

(1)  Right understanding, 

(2) Right thought,
(3) Right speech,
(4) Right action, 

(5) Right livelihood,
(6) Right effort,
(7) Right mindfulness 

(8) Right concentration

Teachings of Buddha :

• 4 Noble Truths (Arya satyas) – Dukkha, Samudaya, Niroda, and Magga (MNDS)
• 3 Jewels (Triratnas) – the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha (BDS)
• Code of Conduct.
• Belief in Nirvana
• Belief in Ahimsa

Buddhist Councils : The 6 Buddhist Councils had been held in order to address the issues during that period in Buddhism. 

The four Buddhist Councils are held at RVPK  under PATRONAGE of the kings AKAK & Priests MSMV.

• 1st Buddhist Council
• Held in Sattaparnaguha Cave situated outside Rajgriha (the modern city of Rajgir) in year 486 BC.
• King: Ajatasatru, son of King Bimbisara (Haryanka Dynasty)
• Presiding Priest : Venerable Mahakasyapa with 500 monks
• Took place 3 months after the Buddha’s Passing.
• The First Buddhist Council collected together and arranged the Buddhist Scriptures known as the Pali Tipitaka.
• It resulted in Vinaya Pitaka which mainly contains the rules of Buddhist order recited by Upali.
• Suttapitaka was recited by Ananda which contains the great collections of Buddha’s sermons on matters of doctrine and ethical beliefs.

• 2nd Buddhist Council
• Held at Vaishali in 386 BC
• King: Kalasoka (Shisunaga Dynasty) and Presiding Priest : Sabakami.
• Took place 100 years after the Buddha’s passing.
• In order to settle a serious dispute on Vinaya which arose over the ‘Ten Points.’
• This is a reference to claims of some monks breaking ten rules, some of which were considered major.
•  The specific ten points were:
1. Storing salt in a horn
2. Eating after midday
3. Eating once and then going again to a village for alms
4. Holding the Uposatha Ceremony with monks dwelling in the same locality
5. Carrying out official acts when the assembly was incomplete
6. Following a certain practice because it was done by one’s tutor or teacher
7. Eating sour milk after one had his midday meal
8. Consuming strong drink before it had been fermented
9. Using a rug which was not the proper size
10. Using gold and silver
•  The key issue was the use of ‘gold and silver’, which is an Indic idiom that includes any kind of money.
• It resulted in Split of the Buddhist order into Sthaviravadinis(Theravada) and Mahasanghikas. Split was over small points of monastic discipline.
• It made the unanimous decision not to relax any of the rules, and censured the behaviour of the monks who were accused of violating the ten points.

• 3rd Buddhist Council
• Held at Pataliputra (today’s Patna) in 250 BC.
• King: Ashoka (Maurya Dynasty) and Presiding priest: Mogaliputta Tissa (Upagupta).
• Its objective was to reconcile the different schools of Buddhism and to purify the Buddhist movement, particularly from opportunistic factions which had been attracted by the royal patronage.
• The responses to doctrinal questions and disputes formulated at the 3rd Council were recorded by Moggaliputta Tissa in the Kathavatthu, one of the books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
• It Resulted in to make Sthaviravada School as an orthodox school – believed that the past, present, and future are all simultaneous. They may have contributed some formative influence to Mahayana.
• Codification of Abhidhamma pitaka, dealing with Buddhist philosophy written in Pali.

• 4th Buddhist Council:
• Held at Kundalavana, Kashmir in 72 AD
• King: Kanishka (Kushan Dynasty) ,was a patron of Buddhism and was instrumental in spreading the religion in north-western borders of India and Presiding Priest: Vasumitra; deputed by Asvaghosha.
• 4th Buddhist Council had to deal with a serious conflict between the Sarvasthivada teachers of Kashmir and Gandhara.
• It Resulted in:
1. Sarvasthivada doctrines were organized into three large commentaries on the Pitakas.
2. Final division of Buddhism into Mahayana & Hinayana sects

Buddhism was also split into 2 divisions - the Hinayana and the Mahayana to which a third called Vajrayana was added subsequently. 

Later Hindu tradition even accepted the Buddha as one of the incarnations (Avatara) of Vishnu. 

Theravada Buddhist council in 1871 and Theravada Buddhist council in 1954 are known as Fifth and Sixth Buddhist Councils respectively.

• 5th Buddhist council was held in Mandalay, Burma in the year 1871 under the patronage of King Mindon. It was presided by Jagarabhivamsa, Narindhabhidhaja and Sumangalasami. During this council, 729 stone slabs were engraved with Buddhist teachings.

• 6th Buddhist Council was held in 1954 in Burma at Kaba Aye, Yangoon. It was held under the patronage of Burmese government and it was presided by Prime Minister U Nu. The council commemorated 2500 years of Buddhism.

Theravada Buddhism :

* strongest in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, and Burma (Myanmar) & sometimes called* ‘Southern Buddhism’.*

* The name means *‘the doctrine of the elders’ – the elders being the senior Buddhist monks*.

* It believes that it has remained *closest to the original teachings of the Buddha*.

* However, it does not over-emphasize the status of these teachings in a fundamentalist way – they are seen as tools to help people understand the truth, and not as having a merit of their own.

* The Vessantara Jātaka is one of the most popular apadānas of Theravada Buddhism. These Jatakas are carved on Sanchi Stupa.

Tantra :

* In Buddhism, the Vajrayana tradition is known for its extensive tantra ideas and practices.

* Tantric Hindu and Buddhist traditions have influenced other Eastern religious traditions such as *Jainism, Sikhism, the Tibetan Bön tradition, Daoism, and the Japanese Shintō tradition*.

* Tantra introduced* icons, puja and temple building in to Hinduism*. The Hindu texts that describe these topics are called* Tantras, Āgamas or Samhitās .

Mathurā art :

* A style of Buddhist visual art that flourished in the trading and pilgrimage center of Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India, from the* 2nd century BC to the 12th century AD.*

* Its most distinctive contributions were made during the *Kushān and Gupta periods (1st–6th century AD)*.

* Images in the mottled* red sandstone* from the nearby Sīkri quarries are found widely distributed over north-central India, attesting to Mathurā’s importance as an exporter of sculpture.

* The Mathurā school was *contemporaneous with a second important school of Kushān art, that of Gandhāra* in the northwest, which shows strong* Greco-Roman influence*.

* The materials used for* Gandhara sculpture were green phyllite and gray-blue mica schist* which in general, belong to an earlier phase, and *stucco*, which was used increasingly* after the 3rd century CE.*

* The sculptures were originally painted and gilded.

* The famous* headless statue of Kanishka *was found in the* village Mat, near Mathura* by Pandit Radha Krishna (http://www.deccanherald.com... in 1911.

Avalokiteshvara:

• Japanese Kannon, in Buddhism, and primarily in Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle”) Buddhism
• The bodhisattva (“buddha-to-be”) of infinite compassion and mercy, possibly the most popular of all figures in Buddhist legend.
• Avalokiteshvara is beloved throughout the Buddhist world—not only in Mahayana Buddhism but also in Theravada (“Way of the Elders”), the branch of Buddhism that largely does not recognize bodhisattvas, and in Vajrayana (“Diamond Vehicle”), the Tantric (or Esoteric) branch of Buddhism.
• Avalokiteshvara, Padmapani, Vajrapani, Amitabha, and Maitreya Buddha are all Boddhisattvas

Sautrāntika :

• An ancient school of Buddhism that emerged in India about 2nd century BC as an offshoot of Sarvāstivāda (“All-Is-Real Doctrine”).
• The school is so called because of its reliance on the sutras, or words of the Buddha, and its rejection of the authority of the Abhidharma, a part of the canon.
• The Sautrāntikas maintained that though events (dharmas) have only momentary existence, there is a transmigrating substratum of consciousness that contains within it seeds of goodness that are in every person.
• The Sautrāntika sometimes is characterized as a transitional school that led to the development of the Mahāyāna tradition, and many of its views influenced later Yogācāra thought.

TRIPITAKA :

• Each Buddhist sub-tradition had its own Tripitaka for its monasteries, written by its sangha, each set consisting of 32 books, in 3 parts or baskets of teachings: 
• (1) the basket of expected discipline from monks (Vinaya Piṭaka), 
• (2) basket of discourse (Sūtra Piṭaka, Nikayas), 
• (3) basket of special doctrine (Abhidharma Piṭaka).

 Much of the surviving Tripitaka literature is in Pali, with some in Sanskrit as well as other local Asian languages.

1. Vinaya Piṭaka, (Pāli and Sanskrit: “Basket of Discipline”):
• The oldest and smallest of the 3 sections of the Buddhist canonical Tipiṭaka (“Triple Basket”) and the one that regulates monastic life and the daily affairs of monks and nuns according to rules attributed to the Buddha.
• It varies less from school to school than does either the Sutta (discourses of the Buddha and his disciples) or Abhidhamma (scholastic) sections of the canon, and the rules themselves are basically the same even for Mahāyāna schools, although some of the latter greatly extended the accompanying narrative and commentary material.
• The structure, the code of conduct & moral virtues in the pitaka particularly, have similarities to some of surviving Dharmasutra texts of Hinduism.

2. Sūtra Piṭaka (“Basket of Discourse”) :

• Contains more than 10,000 suttas(teachings) attributed to the Buddha or his close companions.
• There are 5 nikayas (collections) of suttas. The word Nikaya is most commonly used in reference to the Buddhist texts of the Sutta Piṭaka. 
1. Digha Nikāya (dīghanikāya), the "long" discourses.
2. Majjhima Nikāya, the "middle-length" discourses.
3. Saṁyutta Nikāya (saṃyutta-), the "connected" discourses.
4. Anguttara Nikāya (aṅguttara-), the "numerical" discourses.
5. Khuddaka Nikāya, the "minor collection

3. Abhidharma (in sanskrit) Piṭaka or Abhidhamma ( in Pali ) :

• Ancient (3rd century BCE and later) Buddhist texts which contain detailed scholastic re-workings of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist sutras, according to schematic classifications. 
• The Abhidhamma works do NOT contain systematic philosophical treatises, but summaries or abstract and systematic lists.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka is a detailed scholastic reworking of material appearing in the Suttas, NOT a collection of original discourses by the Buddha himself. 

Buddhist Texts

Pāli Canon
Vinaya Pitaka	Suttavibhanga Khandhaka  Parivara
Sutta Pitaka	Digha Nikaya  Majjhima Nikaya  Samyutta Nikaya  Anguttara Nikaya  Khuddaka Nikaya
Abhidhamma Pitaka	Dhammasangani  Vibhanga  Dhatukatha & Puggalapannatti  Kathavatthu  Yamaka  Patthana

LOCATIONS related to Buddhism :

Kushavati in the ancient times, Kushinagar is where Gautama Buddha attained Parinirvana, which occurs upon death of a body of someone who has attained nirvana during their lifetime. Many of the ruins of stupas here are dated as early as 3rd and 5th century B.C. 

Shravasti : The third turning of the Wheel of Dharma was delivered to an audience of bodhisattvas in the ancient city of Shravasti or Savatthi, one of the six largest cities in India during Gautama Buddha’s lifetime. Jetavana monastery, the most famous Buddhist monastery in India where Buddha gave majority of his teachings and discourses, is also located here. 

Vaishali : The ancient city of Bihar, which is now an archeological site, is where Gautama Buddha preached his last sermon before his death in 483 B.C. The 2nd Buddhist council was also held here in 383 B.C. and the city contains one of the best preserved Pillars of Ashoka, topped by a single Asiatic lion. 

Piprahwa : A village near Birdpur in Siddharthnagar district of Uttar Pradesh. Piprahwa and its surroundings are of great significance to the Buddhist religion. It is one of the sites that is linked directly to the early life of the Buddha as it is thought to be the location of the ancient city of Kapilavastu.  According to Pali texts and ancient Buddhist traditions Piprahwa is also the site of one of eight stupas constructed over the remains of Lord Buddha.

DISCIPLES of Buddha :

• Sariputta & Moggallana were two chief male disciples of Gautama Buddha, counterparts to the Bhikkhunis Khema and Uppalavanna, his two chief female disciples. They were to maintain the order of monks and nuns. 
• The conversion of Khema (was one of the queens of King Bimbisara ) was one of the rare cases where Buddha used his psychic powers to make a change in the heart of another. 
• Moggallana attained enlightenment shortly after joining the Sangha. As a teacher, he became known for his psychic powers, which he used extensively in his teaching methods. 
• Kings like Prasenajit of Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha too accepted the doctrines of the Buddha and became his disciples. 
• Subhadda who was at Kusinârâ, was LAST person who became disciple of Buddha. 

Buddhamitra was a Buddhist nun from India during the Kushan Empire & remembered because of dated inscriptions on images of bodhisattvas and the Buddha that she erected in 3 cities near the Ganges river.
They mark her success in attracting money and patronage to the Sarvastivada, the sect of Buddhism to which she belonged. 

She wrote virasoliyam which is a work on Tamil Grammar. Virasoliyam attempts to find synthesis between Sanskrit and Tamil grammar.
There were other books written on Tamil grammar as well like Yapperungalam and Yapperungalakkarigai by the Jain ascetic Amirtasagara. 

The Milinda Pañha ("Questions of Milinda") 

• It is a Buddhist text which dates from sometime between 100 BCE and 200 CE. 
• It purports to record a dialogue between the Buddhist sage Nāgasena, and the Indo-Greek king Menander I (Pali: Milinda) of Bactria, who reigned from Sagala (modern Sialkot, Pakistan).
• The Milinda Pañha is regarded as canonical in Burmese Buddhism, included as part of the book of Khuddaka Nikaya. 
• An abridged version is included as part of Chinese Mahayana translations of the canon. 
• The Milinda Pañha is NOT regarded as canonical by Thai or Sri Lankan Buddhism, however, despite the surviving Theravāda text being in Sinhalese script.
• The Milinda Pañha is also referred to as the Nāgasena-sutra

Why did Buddhism start declining in India in the early medieval times?*_

* With the Gupta dynasty (~4th to 6th century), the* growth in ritualistic Mahayana Buddhism*, and the adoption of Buddhist ideas into Hindu schools, the *differences between Buddhism and Hinduism blurred*.

* *Vaishnavism, Shaivism and other Hindu traditions became increasingly popular, and Brahmins developed a new relationship with the state.*

* As the system grew,* Buddhist monasteries gradually lost control of land revenue*.

* In parallel, the *Gupta kings built Buddhist temples such as the one at Kushinagara, and monastic universities such as those at Nalanda*, as evidenced by *records left by three Chinese visitors to India*.

* *According to Hazra*, Buddhism declined in part because of the* rise of the Brahmins and their influence in socio-political process.*

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Ajivika:

* An ascetic sect that *emerged in India about the same time as Buddhism and Jainism and that lasted until the 14th century;* the name may mean *“following the ascetic way of life*.”

* It was founded by Goshala Maskariputra (also called Gosala Makkhaliputta), a friend of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara (“Ford-maker,” i.e. saviour) of Jainism.

* His doctrines and those of his followers are known only from Buddhist and Jain sources, which state that he was *lowborn and died after a quarrel with Mahavira* shortly before the Buddha died.

• Ājīvika followers believed that a cycle of reincarnation of the soul was determined by a precise and non-personal cosmic principle called niyati (destiny or fate) that was completely independent of the person's actions.

• A sect of Pasupata ascetics, founded by Lakulisa (or Nahulisa), is attested by inscriptions from the 5th century and is among the earliest of the sectarian religious orders of Shaivite Hinduism.

Madhyamaka aka Śūnyavāda :

• It refers primarily to the later schools of Buddhism philosophy founded by Nagarjuna (150 CE to 250 CE).
• He believes that all phenomena (dharmas) are empty (śūnya) of "nature," a "substance" or "essence" (svabhāva) which gives them "solid and independent existence," because they are dependently co-arisen. But this "emptiness" itself is also "empty": it does not have an existence on its own, nor does it refer to a transcendental reality beyond or above phenomenal reality.

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Sikhism :

• Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Guru Nanak, to which he added his own in a new script known as Gurmukhi.
• The 3 successors of Guru Angad also wrote under name of “Nanak” and all of their compositions were compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604.
• To this compilation were added the writings of other figures like Shaikh Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur.
• In 1706 this compilation was authenticated by his son and successor, Guru Gobind Singh. It is now known as Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikhs(syncreticsm )

• By the beginning of the 17th century the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed around the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple). It was virtually self-governing and modern historians refer to the early seventeenth century Sikh community as ‘a state within the state’.
• The Mughal emperor Jahangir looked upon them as a potential threat and he ordered the execution of Guru Arjan in 1606.
• The Sikh movement began to get politicized in the seventeenth century, a development which culminated in the institution of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699. The community of the Sikhs, called the Khalsa Panth, became a political entity (militaristic outlook)

• Nanak had a huge impact on this development from the very beginning. He emphasized the importance of the worship of one God. He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation. His idea of liberation was not that of a state of inert bliss but rather the pursuit of active life with a strong sense of social commitment. 
• He himself used the terms nam, dan and isnan for the essence of his teaching, which actually meant right worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct. 
• His teachings are now remembered as nam-japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna, which also underline the importance of right belief and worship, honest living, and helping others. Thus, Guru Nanak’s idea of equality had social and political implications.
• This might partly explain the difference between the history of the followers of Guru Nanak and the history of the followers of the other religious figures of the medieval centuries, like Kabir, Ravidas and Dadu whose ideas were very similar to those of Guru Nanak (bhakti).

The views of six samaṇa in the Pāli Canon (based on the Buddhist text Sāmaññaphala Sutta1)
Śramaṇa	view (diṭṭhi)
Pūraṇa. Kassapa	Amoralism: denies any reward or Punishment for either good or bad deeds.
Makkhali Gośāla (Ājīvika)	Niyativāda (Fatalism): we are powerless; suffering is pre-destined.
Ajita Kesakambalī (Lokāyata)	Materialism: live happily; with death, all is annihilated.
Pakudha Kaccāyana	Sassatavada (Eternalism): Matter, pleasure, pain and the soul are eternal and do not interact.
Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta (Jainism)	Restraint: be endowed with, cleansed by and suffused with the avoidance of all evil.2
Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta (Ajñana)	Agnosticism: "I don't think so. I don't think in that way or otherwise. I don't think not or not not." Suspension of judgement