. PATH of UPSC: BIOLOGY Science

BIOLOGY FACTS

Von Willebrand Disease : A bleeding disorder caused by low levels of clotting protein in the blood.

Hemophilia is a rare disorder in which your blood doesn't clot normally because it lacks sufficient blood-clotting proteins (clotting factors).

Heparin

is an anticoagulant (blood thinner) that prevents the formation of blood clots.
Heparin is used to treat and prevent blood clots caused by certain medical conditions or medical procedures.
It is also used before surgery to reduce the risk of blood clots.

Berium Meal : a diagnostic test used to detect abnormalities of the esophagus, stomach and small bowel using X-ray imaging. X-rays can only highlight bone and other radio-opaque tissues and would not usually enable visualization of soft tissue.

Swine Influenza (swine flu) :

A respiratory disease of pigs caused by type A influenza viruses that causes regular outbreaks in pigs.
First detected in 2009, it was called “swine flu” because the virus was similar to those found in pigs.
H1N1 is currently a seasonal flu virus found in humans. Although it also circulates in pigs, one cannot get it by eating properly handled and cooked pork or pork products.
In 2009, H1N1 was spreading fast around the world, so the WHO called it a pandemic.
Swine flu is contagious(Communicable, Transmittable) , spreads in the same way as the seasonal flu.
When people who have it cough or sneeze, they spray tiny drops of the virus into the air. If a person comes in contact with these drops or touch a surface that an infected person has recently touched, the person can catch H1N1 swine flu.
Pregnant women who contract the H1N1 infection are at a greater risk of developing complications because of hormonal changes, physical changes and changes to their immune system to accommodate the growing foetus.

Avian influenza or Bird flu :

An infectious viral disease of birds with a tendency of causing large-scale outbreaks of serious disease
A(H5N1) and A(H7N9) have caused serious infections in people.
Symptoms are Fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, nausea, severe breathing problems, pneumonia, acute respiratory problem.
Same prescription drugs that are used to treat human seasonal flu viruses, can be used for this flu.

H1N1, which caused Spanish Flu in 1918 and Swine Flu in 2009

H2N2, which caused Asian Flu in 1957

H3N2, which caused Hong Kong Flu in 1968

H5N1, which caused Bird Flu in 2004

H7N7, which has unusual zoonotic potential

H1N2, endemic in humans, pigs and birds etc.

Hepatitis

is caused by inflammation of the LIVER tissue.
Some people have no symptoms whereas others develop yellow discoloration of the skin and whites of the eyes, poor appetite, vomiting, tiredness, abdominal pain, or diarrhea.
The most common cause of hepatitis worldwide is viruses.
There are five main types of viral hepatitis: type A, B, C, D, and E.
Hepatitis A and E are mainly spread by contaminated food and water.
Hepatitis B is mainly sexually transmitted, but may also be passed from mother to baby during pregnancy or childbirth.
Both hepatitis B and C are commonly spread through infected blood such as may occur during needle sharing by intravenous drug users.
Hepatitis D can only infect people already infected with hepatitis B.
Hepatitis A, B, and D are preventable with immunization.
Medications may be used to treat chronic cases of viral hepatitis.
There is no specific treatment for NASH; however, a healthy lifestyle, including physical activity, a healthy diet, and weight loss, is important.
Autoimmune hepatitis may be treated with medications to suppress the immune system.
A liver transplant may also be an option in certain cases.

First time, A case of RAT Hepatitis E has been discovered in a man of Hong Kong.

Multi Drug Therapy : The drugs used in WHO-MDT are a combination of rifampicin, clofazimine and dapsone for MB leprosy patients and rifampicin and dapsone for PB leprosy patients. Among these rifampicin is the most important antileprosy drug and therefore is included in the treatment of both types of leprosy.

Nipah Virus NiV :

Nipah virus (NiV) infection is a newly emerging zoonosis(disease from Animal) that causes severe disease in both animals and humans.
The natural host of the virus are fruit bats of the Pteropodidae Family, Pteropus genus.
Nipah Virus is one of the types of RNA(Ribonucleic Acid ). Its incubation period lies between 4 to 18 days.
Yet there is NO treatment & NO vaccination available for this disease.
The virus was first identified during an outbreak of disease that took place in Kampung Sungai Nipah, Malaysia in 1998.
On this occasion, pigs were the intermediate hosts. However, in subsequent NiV outbreaks, there were no intermediate hosts.
In Bangladesh in 2004, humans became infected with NiV as a result of consuming date palm sap that had been contaminated by infected fruit bats.
Human-to-human transmission has also been documented, including in a hospital setting in India. It can be transmitted via animal to Human and Human to human. It CANNOT be transmitted through AIR.
NiV infection in humans has a range of clinical presentations, from asymptomatic infection to acute respiratory syndrome and fatal encephalitis. NiV is also capable of causing disease in pigs and other domestic animals. There is no vaccine for either humans or animals. The primary treatment for human cases is intensive supportive care.
It is listed by WHO in World organisation for Animal Health.

RECENTLY First time in India on 21st May 2018, 3 persons in a family died due to NiV in Kerala.

Ebola Virus :

Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a severe, often fatal illness in humans. It was first identified in 1976 in the Democratic Republic of Congo in a village.
Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a severe, often fatal illness in humans.
The virus is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-to-human transmission.
The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90% in past outbreaks.
The first EVD outbreaks occurred in remote villages in Central Africa, near tropical rainforests. The 2014–2016 outbreak in West Africa involved major urban areas as well as rural ones.
Community engagement is key to successfully controlling outbreaks. Good outbreak control relies on applying a package of interventions, namely case management, infection prevention and control practices, surveillance and contact tracing, a good laboratory service, safe and dignified burials and social mobilisation.
Early supportive care with rehydration, symptomatic treatment improves survival. There is as yet no licensed treatment proven to neutralize the virus but a range of blood, immunological and drug therapies are under development.

Somatic Cell transfer SCNT - to reconstruct unfertilized egg by replacing it's nucleus with another Cell's nucleus in order to obtain required genetic features.

Typbar TCV

Typhoid conjugate vaccine developed by Bharat Biotech Ltd (BBL).
Typbar TCV is the world’s first typhoid vaccine clinically proven for use on recipients who can be as young as six months.
WHO has pre-qualified and allows for the sale of the vaccines to UN agencies such as UNICEF and GAVI.

Typhoid fever is an acute illness associated with fever caused by Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi bacteria. It can also be caused by Salmonella paratyphi, a related bacterium that usually causes a less severe illness

GAVI (Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunization)

Created in 2000, an international Organisation , bringing together public and private sectors with the shared goal of creating equal access to new and underused vaccines for children living in the world’s poorest countries.
Gavi brings together developing country and donor governments, the WHO, UNICEF, World Bank, the vaccine industry in both industrialised and developing countries, research and technical agencies, civil society, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and other private philanthropists.

Tourette syndrome (Rani mukherji new movie based on it)

Neuropsychiatric disorder that causes people to make sudden repetitive movements or sounds which aren’t controlled (known as tics).
Though the exact cause of the Tourette’s syndrome is unknown, it is believed to be caused both by genetic and environmental factors.
linked to a dysfunction in an area in the brain, which could be basal ganglia, thalamus and frontal cortex, which controls the body movement.

Down Syndrome

a chromosomal condition associated with Intellectual and learning disabilities.
Also called trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21.
Persons with Down Syndrome have 47 chromosomes as compared to 46 in majority of people.
This one Extra chromosome causes its own impact and slows down learning process. It impacts neurological functioning causing impairment of intellectual functions e.g. analytical thinking, complex abstractions and judgement etc.
Its treatment involve Good schooling, loving family, learning and work opportunities make them grow up to be responsible, loving and cheerful persons. Their emotions and needs are like any other person of the same age. Accepting and respecting family/community is a big support to their growth and development.

Rotavac vaccine for diarrhoea :

The Rotavac vaccine is developed by the Hyderabad-based Bharat Biotech Limited and included in India’s national immunisation programme.
The Rotavac vaccine protects against childhood diarrhoea caused by the rotavirus.
The vaccine has been “pre-qualified” by the World Health Organisation.
To be “pre-qualified” means that the vaccine can be sold internationally to several countries in Africa and South America.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) :

A mosquito-borne flavivirus belongs to the same genus as dengue, yellow fever and West Nile viruses.
The first case of JE was documented in 1871 in Japan.
It primarily affects children. Most adults in endemic countries have natural immunity after childhood infection, but individuals of any age may be affected.

It is transmitted by rice field breeding mosquitoes (primarily Culex tritaeniorhynchus group). The mosquitoes transmit JE by feeding on domestic pigs and wild birds infected with the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). It is not transmitted from person-to-person. JE transmission mainly intensifies during the rainy season, during which vector populations increase.

Signs and symptoms of most JE infections are mild (fever and headache) or without apparent symptoms, but it may result in severe clinical illness. Moreover, severe infection is marked by quick onset, headache, high fever, neck stiffness, disorientation, stupor, occasional convulsions (especially in infants) etc There is no specific therapy. Intensive supportive therapy is indicated.

Yellow Fever :

Yellow fever is an acute viral haemorrhagic disease transmitted by the aedes and Haemogogus mosquitoes.
It is not always easy to diagnose, especially at the beginning, since its symptoms can often be confused with those of malaria, dengue fever, or other haemorrhagic fever. However, some patients will suffer from a jaundice specific to the disease, which explains why the term “yellow” is used.
To date, there is NO treatment against yellow fever.
Vaccination is the best option to prevent outbreaks of the disease and to protect people against it.
Other strategies to combat the disease include mosquito population control, with the large scale use of pesticides and mosquito nets, as well as the treatment of stagnant water sources.

Malaria :

Malaria is a vector borne disease caused by parasitic protozoans((a group of single-celled microorganisms)) belonging to the Plasmodium type. It is most commonly transmitted by an infected female Anopheles mosquito.
After an infected mosquito bites human, parasites begin to multiply in person’s liver. It progresses to infect and destroy RBCs red blood cells in the body.
As per WHO there is currently no commercially available malaria vaccine, despite many decades of intense research and development effort. The most advanced vaccine candidate against Plasmodium falciparum is RTS,S/AS01.

Chikungunya disease :

It resembles dengue fever, and is characterized by severe, sometimes persistent, joint pain (Arthiritis), as well as fever and rash.
It is rarely life-threatening.
Chikungunya occurs in Africa, India and Southeast Asia .
The affected states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharasthra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat & Kerala.
Anyone who is bitten by an infected mosquito can get Chikungunya.
There is neither Chikungunya virus vaccine nor drugs are available to cure the infection.
However, there are some recent attempts at developing the vaccine; they haven’t been approved by WHO.
Prevention, therefore, centres on avoiding mosquito bites. Eliminating mosquito breeding sites is another key prevention measure.

Leprosy : known as Hansen’s disease (HD)

it is a chronic, progressive bacterial infection caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae.
It primarily affects the nerves of the extremities, the skin, the lining of the nose, the upper respiratory tract and the eyes.
The disease produces skin ulcers, nerve damage, and muscle weakness.
If it isn’t treated, it can cause severe disfigurement and significant disability.
It is known to occur at all ages ranging from early infancy to very old age.
It is common in many countries, especially those with a tropical or subtropical climate.

Diseases caused by different Microorganisms - Bacteria, Virus, Fungi, Protozoa -

Diseases caused by Bacteria

Cholera - Vibrio cholera — from dirty water and food
Anthrax - Bacillus Anthraces — from Animals
Diphtheria - Corynebacterium diphtheria — effects mucous of nose and throat —
Leprosy - Mycobacterium leprae —
Botulism - Clostridium botulinum — cause extreme weakness
Syphilis - Treponema pallidum — STD disease
Tetanus - Clostridium tetani
Trachoma - Chlamydia trachomatis — Roughness in inner eye lids
Tuberculosis - Mycobacterium tuberculosis —- communicable disease from coughing —
Typhoid fever - Salmonella typhi — high fever —
Whooping cough - Bordetella pertussis — runny nose , nasal congestion

Diseases caused by Virus

AIDS-Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) — affects immune system
Influenza - Influenza virus — Flu
Mumps - Mumps Virus — swelling in Slivary glands ( preventable by vaccine )
Polio - Polio Virus — preventable by vaccine
Chicken Pox - Varicella zoster virus —
Measles - Rubeola Measles Virus — affects respiratory system
Dengue fever - Dengue Virus — mosquito borne vector disease , fall in platelets , in tropical and sub tropical areas
Chikungunya - Chikungunya virus — infected mosquitos cause high fever and joint pain
Rabies - Rabies virus — from saliva of Animal bites
SARS - SARS coronavirus — severe acute respiratory syndrome , by air

Diseases caused by Fungi

Athlete's foot - caused by the mold Epidermophytonfloccosum — fungal infection b/w toes

Diseases caused by Protozoa

Malaria - Plasmodium vivax — high fever , shivering , Spleen enlargement
Amoebic dysentery - Entamoebahistolytica —

Various Diseases and Affected parts of body

Arthritis : Joints ;
Asthma: Bronchial Muscles;
Cataract : Eyes; ( motiabind ) quantity of water in eyes decreases with age
Diabetes(Sugar) : Pancreas —> pancreatic juice ; less insulin cause
Diphtheria : Throat ;
Eczema : Skin allergy ; red dryness on skin
Glaucoma : Eyes ; more water
Goitre : Thyroid Gland; lack of Iodine
Jaundice : Liver ; yellow urine , too much Bilirubin a yellow pigment formed by dead RBC in liver
Leukemia : Blood Cancer; white BC more than RBCs
Malaria : Spleen enlargement ;
Meningitis : Brain and Spinal Cord ;
Entities : Ears ;
Paralysis (lakwa) : Nerves ; a part of body become dead with no movement
Pneumonia : Lungs ; in cold weather , fluid in lungs
Polio : Legs ;
Pyorrhea : Teeth and Gums; lack of
Rheumatism : Joints ; bonn less cartilage
Sinusitis : Inflammation of sinus linings ; because of cold , excess mucus
Tonsillitis : Tonsils in mouth ;
Trachoma : Eyes; inner lids get affected with dust layers
Tuberculosis : Lungs ; High communicable disease through Air, need course of DOTS
Typhoid : Intestines — high fever

Tuberculosis :

UN celebrates World TB free day on 24th March with 2018 theme “TB Free world”.
Central Tuberculosis Division was set up under DGoHS of Ministry of Health and Family welfare in 1949.
Currently Health Ministry gets only 10,000 doses of Bedaquiline and 400 doses of Delaminid for TB treatment.
World Health Organization (WHO) requested drug makers to submit Expression of Interest (EoI) for Bedaquiline and Delaminid, two new-generation drugs, recommended for DR-TB.
National Tuberculosis Institute was set up in 1959 by GOI with help of WHO.
Streptomysine, Selicyclic acid, Theositazone, Refentacine are various antibiotics for TB.
RNTCP Revised National Tuberculosis Control Program was set up to run DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment, Short Course) and involve new elements to control TB.
WHO’s World TB report

2 Major Diseases :

Pertussis (also known as whooping cough or 100-day cough) is a highly contagious bacterial disease. Pertussis is caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. It is an airborne disease which spreads easily through the coughs and sneezes of an infected person. Antibiotics used include erythromycin, azithromycin, clarithromycin, or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole.

Zoonatic Diseases : Zoonoses are infectious diseases of animals (usually vertebrates) that can naturally be transmitted to humans.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL), also known as kala-azar, black fever, and Dumdum fever, is the most severe form of leishmaniasis and, without proper diagnosis and treatment, is associated with high fatality. It is caused by protozoan parasites of the Leishmania genus. migrates to the internal organs such as the liver, spleen (hence “visceral”), and bone marrow

Parasite Leishmania donovani is believed to be responsible for the dreaded infection. Another parasite called Leptomonas seymouri may also be present.

Sandfly of genus Phlebotomus argentipes are the only known vectors of kala-azar in India.

Kala-azar is endemic to the Indian subcontinent in 119 districts in four countries (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal). This disease is the second-largest parasitic killer in the world.

Zika is an arbovirus infection which occurs through the bite of several different species of Aedes mosquitoes, including the Aedes aegypti which is active during the day; microcephaly happened to pregnant women and new born child having bigger head compared to body caused by Zika virus infection only.

Vector-borne diseases are human illnesses caused by parasites, viruses and bacteria that are transmitted by mosquitoes, sandflies, triatomine bugs, blackflies, ticks, tsetse flies, mites, snails and lice. The diseases are malaria, dengue, schistosomiasis, human African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis and onchocerciasis.

Mosquitoes are the best known disease vector. Others include ticks, flies, sandflies, fleas, triatomine bugs and some freshwater aquatic snails^.

^{**************** NAME of MOSQUITOES and Related Diseases ****************}

Aedes aegypti

* Chikungunya
* Dengue fever
* Rift Valley fever
* Yellow fever
* Zika
* Mayaro

^Anopheles

* Malaria
* Lymphatic filariasis

Lymphatic filariasis

commonly known as elephantiasis, is a neglected tropical disease.
Infection occurs when filarial parasites are transmitted to humans through mosquitoes.
Infection is usually acquired in childhood causing hidden damage to the lymphatic system.
Lymphatic filariasis impairs the lymphatic system and can lead to the abnormal enlargement of body parts, causing pain, severe disability and social stigma.

^{Culex :}

* Japanese encephalitis
* Lymphatic filariasis
* West Nile fever

Sandflies

* Leishmaniasis

* Sandfly fever (phelebotomus fever)

Ticks

* Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever

* Lyme disease

* Relapsing fever (borreliosis)

* Rickettsial diseases (spotted fever and Q fever)

* Tick-borne encephalitis

* Tularaemia

Triatomine bugs

* Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis)

Tsetse flies

* Sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis)

Fleas

* Plague (transmitted by fleas from rats to humans)

* Rickettsiosis

Black flies

* Onchocerciasis (river blindness)

Aquatic snails

* Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis)

Lice

* Typhus and louse-borne relapsing fever

Salinity levels

Fresh water (< 0.05%)

Brackish water (0.05–3%)

Saline water (3–5%)

Brine (> 5%)

Leg Hb

Leghaemoglobin is an oxygen carrier and hemoprotein found in the nitrogen-fixing root nodules of leguminous plants.

VIRUS is a biological agent that reproduces inside the cells of living hosts. When infected by a virus, a host cell is forced to produce thousands of identical copies of the original virus at an extraordinary rate. Unlike most living things, viruses DO NOT have cells that divide; new viruses are assembled in the infected host cell.

But unlike still simpler infectious agents, viruses contain genes, which gives them the ability to mutate and evolve. Over 5,000 species of viruses have been discovered.

HUMAN BODY

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM :

Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Assimilation
Defecation or Egestion

Digestion starts with mouth

Mechanical by Teeth , Tongue
Chemical due Saliva comes from Salivary glands (are 3 --> Submaxilary , Submandibular , Parotid on cheeks )

Due to Viral Infection, Parotid glands get swelled and Mumps (गलसुआ) disease occurs.
1.5 Litre Saliva comes daily
Saliva have 6.8 pH (Acidic in nature)
To destroy the bacteria who comes in mouth from air , Lysozyme (an anti-bacterial) works.

Lysozyme also present in Tears of eyes.

Saliva have 2 enzymes

Salivary Amylase or Tylin (Carbohydrate) -- helps in digest of Carbohydrate
Maltase -- helps in digest of Carbohydrate , catalyzes the hydrolysis of the disaccharide maltose to the simple sugar glucose.

Snake's Poison comes from it's Parotid Glands

Teeth : comes twice in life

Milk Teeth :

are 20 in Numbers
2102 formula

Permanent Teeth :

are 32 in Numbers
2123 formula

Formula 2102	Milk Teeth are 20	Formula 2123	Permanent are 32
2	Incisors	2	Incisors
1	Canine	1	Canine
0	Premolars	2	Premolars
2	Molars	3*	Molars

*The third teeth of Molars is known as Wisdom Tooth which is absent in Milk teeth.

Elephant has 2nd upper Incisors.
Lion has Canine teeth.
Diphodont : If teeth comes twice for person in life.

Tongue :

Sweet on tip
Salt on side part
Sour on upper middle part
Bitter on inner end

FOOD process

Almentary Canal in Mouth -- 30 feet in Length
Mouth ---> Oesophagus(No digestion here) --> Stomach
Peristalsis -- movement of food in body system
Deglutition -- Process of food in body
For 4 Hours , Food remains inside stomach (Warehouse of Body)

Stomach has three parts

Epithelial cells (उपकला कोशिका ) secretes Mucus
Oxyntic cells secrets HCl
Gastric glands --> Gastric juice (जठरस) has two enzymes who helps to digest protein. The two enzymes get activated by HCl(Hydrochloric acid) which secreted by Oxyntic cells.

Pepsin
Renin : very active in new born and converts the milk Protein Caesinogen ---> Caesin.

Gastric juice -- daily 2 Lt.
HCl brings pH value in stomach between 1.5 to 2.5 pH.
If HCl secretes more , It creates Acidic Medium and wound then Epithelial cells secretes Mucus which neutralise the acidity of the HCl.
Peptic Ulcers पेट के छाले : due to acidic medium
Rugae : झुर्रिया in Stomach

FOOD :

Bolus = Saliva + Food (food in mouth)
Chyme = Acid + Food (food in stomach)

FOOD in Small Intestine :

7.5 Metre long
Villi present here with enlarged area for Maximum absorption
Final Digestion : by two main organs

Liver यकृत --- secretes Bile juice performs emulsification of fats/lipids

More bile juice is stored in Gall Bladder पित्ताशय
Bile Juice has

Bilirubin pigments --> access of it leads to Jaundice ( पीलिया )
biliburdin
collastrol
phospho lipids

Pancreas अग्नाशय -- Pancreatic juice has 3 enzymes

Amylase : digestion of Carbohydrates
Lipase : digestion of Fats/Lipids
Trypsin : digestion of Proteins

Protease (also called a peptidase or proteinase)

is an enzyme that helps proteolysis: protein catabolism by hydrolysis of peptide bonds.
breaks proteins into Amino acids
Trypsin , Pepsin, Renin are type of it.
Proteases have evolved multiple times, and different classes of protease can perform the same reaction by completely different catalytic mechanisms.

Place	Digestion of
Mouth	Carbohydrates
Stomach	Protein
Small Intestine	Final Digestion or Max absorption

LIVER :

Largest gland --> Liver <-- Second largest organ
Skin <-- First largest organ
Liver creates Urea by (protein --> Nitrogen --> NH3 --> Urea ) , Discovered by Ornithine called Ornithine Cycle.
Extra Glucose ---> Glycogen --> stored in Liver
There are two proteins created in Liver

Heparin --> Stopping Blood Clotting inside body
Fibrinogen --> Blood Clotting outside body

Maximum regeneration power , In built capacity

Pancreas :

pancreas is a gland organ. It is located in the abdomen. It is part of the digestive system and produces insulin and other important enzymes and hormones that help break down foods.
Enzymes, or digestive juices, are secreted by pancreas into the small intestine.
It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells.
The pancreas has two main functions:

an exocrine function that helps in digestion.
an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar.

Mixed Glands of Endocrine and Exocrine

Endocrine --> 3 Hormones (discovered by Langerhans) and called as Islets of Langerhans

INSULIN (from Beta cells) --> converts Glucose into Glycogen
Glucagon (from Alpha cells) --> converts Glycogen back into Glucose
Somatostatin (from Delta cells) --> checks activities of Insulin and Glucagon and increase the process of Assimilation स्वांगीकरण.

Exocrine --> Enzymes (Amylase, Lypase, Trypsin )

Excess of Insulin : leads to Hypoglycemia ( lesser Glucose)

Diabetes : has two types

Diabetes Mellitus -->

Lack of Insulin
Blood Glucose increased

Diabetes Insipidus -->

Dried Mouth
Polyuria -- More Urine formation from Kidney

Types of Diabetes :

Type 1 in Children ---> Mellitus

Type 2 in Adults --->

Vomiting Centre in Body : Medulla Oblongata in Brain

Hunger Centre in Body : Hypothalamus in Brain stimulated by Ghrelin made in Stomach

(( Ghrelin is made in the stomach. It stimulates hunger by entering the brain and acting on the neurons in the hypothalamus to increase the activity of the hunger-causing nerve cells and reducing the activity of hunger-inhibiting cells. As the stomach empties, the release of ghrelin increases ))

Large Intestine :

It works to absorb water but Kidney stored the Water.
Caecum : It has vermiform appendix (Inflammation of the Appendix is called Appendicities).
Appendix is Vestigial Organ means it has no use. When our early man used to eat raw food and that was digested by Appendix during those times.

==========================================================================================

Circulatory System

Discovered by William Harvey
In Hearts

Arteries धमनियाँ ---> Pure Blood (Oxygenated Blood)
Veins शिराएँ ---> Impure Blood (De-oxygenated Blood)
Pulmonary Artery ---> Impure Blood
Pulmonary Vein ---> Pure Blood

Pulmonary <----------> Related to Lungs

Heart :

Auricle (Upper part in Left and Right chambers)
Ventricle (Lower part in Left and Right chambers )

Right Auricle and Right Ventricle ---> Tricuspid Valve

Left Auricle and Left Ventricle ---> Bicuspid Valve (Mitral)

Blood Circulation :

Impure Blood by Veins ----> Right Auricle --> Right Ventricle ---> Impure Bloods by Pulmonary Artery ---> Lungs --> Purification (21% O2 + 0.03% CO2) in Lungs ----> Pure Blood by Pulmonary Vein ---> Left Auricle --> Left Ventricle ---> Pure Blood by Coronary Arteries.
Double Circulation of pure and impure bloods in four chambers
Closed Circulatory system of Blood
Blood Purification is done by Lungs
Blood Pumping is done by Heart
Weight of Heart : 300 gm
Outer layer of Heart : Pericardial Membrane
Coronary Arteries : Bloods flow from Heart to muscles if any hindrance comes it leads to HEART Attack.

Blood Circulations in species :

Fishes (Single circulation) have two chambers
Amphibians & Reptiles (incomplete double circulation) since having three chambers
Birds, Mammals have Double circulation of Blood.

Exception : Crocodiles (the amphibian) have Double circulation of Blood.

BLOOD Pressure :

Normal BP : 120/80 (checked by Stethoscope)
Systole 120 : Contraction of Heart --> blood Pump out
Diastole 80 : Relaxation of Heart --> blood Pump In
1 Systole + 1 Diastole = 1 Heartbeat in which Blood flows as 70 ml.
In 1 minute , Heart beats for 72 times , it means total Blood flow = 72 * 70 = 5040 ml = 5.04 Lt.
Hence Normal Blood in Body = 5-6 Lt.
In 1 minute , Blood comes out of Blood known as Cardiac Cycle.
BP measured by Sphygmomanometer( invented by Samuel Siegfried Karl Ritter von Basch in the year 1881)

(Sphygmo --> Arteries)
(Manometer --> Liquid/gas measurement)

1 minutes -- 72 pulse by measuring Arteries
Time for 1 heartbeat : 60/72 ---> 0.8 Seconds
Pulse and Heartbeats ---> Both equal to 72 times in 1 minutes
While Sleeping --> Pulse and Heartbeat will be slow.
Artificial Pacemaker : It works as place of SA node

SA Node or Sinoauricular Node

is Pacemaker , It pushes the blood.
Heartbeat starts from SA Node.

AV Node AuriculoVentricular Node

is Pacesetter , it stops the pace of blood.

Adrenaline Hormone : 3F Hormone (Fight , Fear , Flight)

adrenalin or epinephrine, is a hormone, neurotransmitter, and medication.

Epinephrine is normally produced by both the adrenal glands and certain neurons.

It makes Heartbeat up.

Increases the heart rate, increasing blood pressure, expanding the air passages of the lungs, enlarging the pupil in the eye, redistributing blood to the muscles and altering the body's metabolism, so as to maximise blood glucose levels (primarily for the brain).

Adrenal Glands :

are small glands located on top of each kidney. They produce hormones that you can't live without, including sex hormones and cortisol. Cortisol helps you respond to stress and has many other important functions. With adrenal gland disorders, your glands make too much or not enough hormones.
also known as suprarenal glands are small, triangular-shaped glands located on top of both kidneys.
Adrenal glands produce hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions.

ECG Electrocardiogram :

The process of recording the electrical activity of the heart over a period of time using electrodes placed over the skin.

Willem Einthoven (1860 – 1927) was a Dutch doctor and physiologist

He discovered (ECG or EKG) in 1903 and received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1924 for it ("for the discovery of the mechanism of the electrocardiogram").

The report is known as Electrocardiograph

P	QRS	T
Auricle Contraction	Ventricle Contraction	Ventricle Relaxation
Depolarisation	Depolarisation	Repolarisation

Part of Brain which controls the activities which can not be controlled by Human normally known as *Medulla Oblongata* . It lies on lower part of part.

White Blood Cells: neutrophils & lymphocytes

There are 5 types of white blood cells.
One type is the neutrophil, which accounts for about 60% of all white cells. During infections, these cells divide and are dumped into the blood stream and lymph fluids to combat the infection.
The other important type of white cell is the lymphocyte, which comes in 2 forms, a B-type and an T-type.

The B-type makes circulating antibodies. The B-type is made in lymph nodes and bone marrow.
The T-type lymphocyte ("T" is for killer) either kills foreign cells on contact or helps by releasing chemicals that assist in killing invaders.

T-cells recognize the surface proteins on other cells and when they come in contact with an intruder, the invading cells are killed.
These lymphocytes are made in a gland at the base of the neck, called the thymus. This gland is very large in young people, but almost disappears in old age.
Production of T-cells can be reactivated at any time, if a foreign antigen is presented. T-cells also play a role in the rejection of transplanted tissue and in fighting cancer.

Red blood cells carry oxygen
White blood cells fight infection
Platelets stop bleeding in injuries

(O-) is Universal Donar and (AB+) is Universal Recipient

Rh bloodgroup system consists of 50 defined blood group antigens, among which the five antigens D, C, c, E, and e are the most important. The commonly used terms Rh factor, Rh positive and Rh negative refer to the D antigen only. Rhesus (Rh) factor is an inherited protein found on the surface of red blood cells. If your blood has the protein, you're Rh positive. If your blood lacks the protein, you're Rh negative. Rh positive is the most common blood type. Rh positive (Rh+ does have the D antigen) or Rh negative (Rh− does not have the D antigen)

Rh factor, Rh positive and Rh negative refer to the D antigen only. Besides its role in blood transfusion, the D antigen is used to determine the risk of hemolytic disease of the newborn (or erythroblastosis fetalis) for Rh disease management.

Antigen : A toxin which induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.

Viscosity of Human blood because of presence of Protein.

Hormones in Human Body

Insulin – Regulation of blood glucose, If the body has sufficient energy, insulin signals the liver to take up glucose and store it as glycogen. It helps control blood glucose levels by signaling the liver and muscle and fat cells to take in glucose from the blood. Insulin therefore helps cells to take in glucose to be used for energy.
Melatonin – Regulation of Sleep
Oxytocin – Release of milk from mammary glands, released into the blood from the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) of the pituitary gland, used to induce labor or strengthen labor contractions during childbirth, and to control bleeding after childbirth. Oxytocin is also used to stimulate uterine contractions in a woman with an incomplete or threatened miscarriage.
Gastrin – Regulation of blood pressure , produced by G cells, in the stomach lining. When food enters the stomach, G cells trigger the release of gastrin in the blood. As blood levels of gastrin rise, the stomach releases acid (gastric acid) that helps break down and digest food.
Estrogen : A female sex hormone produced by the ovaries, the adrenal gland, and (in small quantities) by body fat.
Progesterone: A female sex hormone produced in largest amounts during and after ovulation that prepares uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg.
Testosterone induces Sexual organs and promotes the development of male sexual characteristics including sperm development.

Oxytocin is a hormone that is made in the brain, in the hypothalamus. It is transported to, and secreted by, the Pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain. It acts both as a hormone and as a brain neurotransmitter.

The release of oxytocin by the pituitary gland acts to regulate 2 female reproductive functions: Childbirth and Breast-feeding.

Estrogen, Progesterone are hormones that affect a woman's sexual desire and functioning. When it comes to sexual desire, the most influential hormone is testosterone in Male.

DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid

It is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms.
Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA.
Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria (where it is called mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
DNA can replicate or make copies of itself.
Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
However, DNA does more than specify the structure and function of living things — it also serves as the primary unit of heredity in organisms of all types.
In other words, whenever organisms reproduce, a portion of their DNA is passed along to their offspring.
This transmission of all or part of an organism's DNA helps ensure a certain level of continuity from one generation to the next, while still allowing for slight changes that contribute to the diversity of life.
A Organic chemical of complex molecular structure that is found in all prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and in many viruses.
DNA codes genetic information for the transmission of inherited traits.

The chemical DNA was first discovered in 1869, but its role in genetic inheritance was not demonstrated until 1943.
In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick determined that the structure of DNA is a double-helix polymer, a spiral consisting of two DNA strands wound around each other. Each strand is composed of a long chain of monomer nucleotides. The nucleotide of DNA consists of a deoxyribose sugar molecule to which is attached a phosphate group and one of four nitrogenous bases: two purines (adenine and guanine) and two pyrimidines (cytosine and thymine).
The nucleotides are joined together by covalent bonds between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of the next, forming a phosphate-sugar backbone from which the nitrogenous bases protrude. One strand is held to another by hydrogen bonds between the bases; the sequencing of this bonding is specific—i.e. adenine bonds only with thymine, and cytosine only with guanine. AGTC
The configuration of the DNA molecule is highly stable, allowing it to act as a template for the replication of new DNA molecules, as well as for the production (transcription) of the related RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecule.
A segment of DNA that codes for the cell’s synthesis of a specific protein is called a gene.

Within a cell, DNA is organized into dense protein-DNA complexes called chromosomes.

In eukaryotes, the chromosomes are located in the nucleus, although DNA also is found in mitochondria and chloroplasts.

In prokaryotes, which do not have a membrane-bound nucleus, the DNA is found as a single circular chromosome in the cytoplasm.

Some prokaryotes, such as bacteria, and a few eukaryotes have extrachromosomal DNA known as plasmids, which are autonomous, self-replicating genetic material. Plasmids have been used extensively in recombinant DNA technology to study gene expression.

The genetic material of viruses may be single or double-stranded DNA or RNA. Retroviruses carry their genetic material as single-stranded RNA and produce the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which can generate DNA from the RNA strand.

Four-stranded DNA complexes known as G-Quadruplexes have been observed in guanine-rich areas of the human genome.

RNA Ribonucleic Acid

It is a complex compound of high molecular weight that functions in cellular protein synthesis and replaces DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) as a carrier of genetic codes in some viruses.
RNA consists of ribose nucleotides in strands of varying lengths. The structure varies from helical to uncoiled strands.
One type, transfer RNA (tRNA), sometimes called soluble, or activator, RNA, contains fewer than 100 nucleotide units; other types contain thousands of units.
The nitrogenous bases in RNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil i.e. AUGC
There are three main types of RNA:

messenger RNA (mRNA),
transfer RNA (tRNA)
ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

In protein formation, mRNA carries codes from the DNA in the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm (the ribosomes).
Ribosomes are composed of rRNA and protein; they can “read” the code carried by the mRNA.
A sequence of three nitrogenous bases in mRNA specifies incorporation of an amino acid; tRNA brings the amino acids to the ribosomes, where they are linked into proteins.

In addition to the main types of RNA, a number of other small RNA molecules and ribonucleoproteins (molecules composed of RNA and protein) occur in the cell. The RNA portion of at least one cellular ribonucleoprotein has been shown to act as a biological catalyst, a function previously ascribed only to proteins. R.W. Holley described the structure of an RNA molecule in 1965.

Trans Fats :

Denmark is first to remove it from its food
There are two main sources for trans fats :

natural sources (in the dairy products and meat of ruminants such as cows and sheep)
industrially-produced sources (partially hydrogenated oils).

Partially hydrogenated cooking oils(source of Trans fat in foods) were first introduced into the food supply in the early 20^th century as a replacement for butter, and became more popular in the 1950s through 1970s with the discovery of the negative health impacts of saturated fatty acids.
Partially hydrogenated oils are primarily used for deep frying and as an ingredient in baked goods; they can be replaced in both.
WHO recommends that the total trans fat intake be limited to less than 1% of total energy intake, which translates to less than 2.2 g/day with a 2,000-calorie diet.
Trans fats increases levels of LDL-cholesterol, a well-accepted biomarker for cardiovascular disease risk, and decreases levels of HDL-cholesterol, which carry away cholesterol from arteries and transport it to the liver, that secretes it into the bile.
Diets high in trans fat increase heart disease risk by 21% and deaths by 28%.
Replacing trans fats with unsaturated fatty acids decreases the risk of heart disease, in part, by ameliorating the negative effects of trans fats on blood lipids.
In addition, there are indications that trans fat may increase inflammation and endothelial dysfunction.
WHO calls on governments to use the REPLACE programme action package - a step-by-step guide to eliminate industrially-produced trans-fatty acids from global food supply. Under REPLACE package, It lies six strategic actions that will help to achieve the elimination of trans fat, and represent a major victory in global fight against cardiovascular disease.

Industrially - produced trans fats are contained in hardened vegetable fats, such as margarine and ghee, and are often present in snack food, baked foods and fried foods. Manufacturers often use them as they have a longer shelf life than other fats But healthier alternatives can be used that would not affect taste or cost of food.

Bacteria and viruses are the most common cause of food poisoning.

Virus: Norovirus (Norwalk Virus) is a common cause.

Bacteria: The food borne bacteria that cause infection are: Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Campylobacter jejuni, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificus, Yersinia enterocolitica and E coli.

Fungi: Mycotoxins are chemical substances produced by a variety of fungi, e.g., aspergilli, penicilli, Rhizopus, Fusarium spp., and mushrooms (poisonous; called toadstools).

DIABETES : a group of metabolic diseases in which the person has high blood glucose (blood sugar), either because insulin production is inadequate, or because the body’s cells do not respond properly to insulin, or both and are five distinct types that can occur in adulthood, rather than the two currently recognised.

cluster 1 : severe autoimmune diabetes which make person unable to produce insulin

cluster 2 : severe insulin-deficient diabetes patients , struggled to make insulin, but the immune system was not at fault

cluster 3 : severe insulin-resistant diabetes patients , making insulin but their body was no longer responding to it

cluster 4 : mild obesity-related diabetes

cluster 5 : mild age-related diabetes

TOXICOLOGY Effects (study of released pollutants )

Roentgen equivalent man REM - indication of biological damage to estimate of the amount of radiation of any type which produces the same biological injury in man that resulting from the absorption of a given X-ray radiation or gamma radiation.

Iodine 131

causes serious damage to thyroid gland, especially among children
Produced from nuclear tests —> vegetation —> grazed by Cattle —> gives milk —> consumed by human

Lead (present in Paints)

can cause liver and kidney damage, reduction in haemoglobin formulation, mental retardation and abnormality in fertility and pregnancy.
Symptoms : Gastrointestinal troubles, Neuromuscular effect( lead palsy ), Central nervous system effects

Mercury —> Minamata disease

Most toxic in water bodies as monomethyl mercury.
cause fatal poisoning as considered by WHO as one of the top ten chemicals or groups of chemicals of major public health concern.
High levels of mercury in fish stocks have been found, mainly in coastal areas.
Mercury is a very rare element in the Earth’s crust.
Mercury is used in lighting as electricity passed through mercury vapor in a fluorescent lamp produces short-wave ultraviolet light which then causes the phosphor in the tube to fluoresce, making visible light.
In human, fish and shellfish transmits the mercury as it contains methyl mercury, an organic compound.

Fluorine

Fluorosis due to high fluoride content water
cause dental fluorosis, stiffness of joints (particularly spinal cord) causing humped back.
Pain in bones and joint and outward bending of legs from the knees is called Knock-Knee syndrome.
In cattle, fluoride intake causes staining, mottling and abrasion of teeth, lameness and decrease in milk production.

DDT

sprayed for many years on marshes to control mosquitoes.
depresses the activity of Estrogen, the female sex hormone and testosterone, male sex hormone.
Birds are more vulnerable as DDT

Note : End result of DDT use is that whole population of predatory birds such as fish hawk and of detritus feeders as fiddler crab are wiped out.

Diseases

Yokkaichi asthma

burning of petroleum and crude oil released large quantities of Sulfur Oxide(SO2) that caused severe smog, resulting in severe cases of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic pulmonary emphysema, and bronchial asthma among the local inhabitants.

Itai-itai disease

documented case of mass cadmium poisoning caused softening of the bones and kidney failure.

Blue baby syndrome

caused by high nitrate contamination in ground water resulting in decreased oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin babies leading to death.

Pneumoconiosis — caused due to the deposit of coal dust in the lungs of coal miners, leads to a serious lung disease called as Black Lung disease.

Emphysema — The breaking down of sensitive tissue of lungs due to air pollution and smoke of cigarette, makes lungs ineffective to expand and contract properly.

Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) —

combination of ailments (a syndrome) associated with an individual's place of work or residence.
caused by poor indoor air quality in pinned down to flaws in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.
improper exhaust ventilation of ozone , lack of adequate fresh-air intake air filtration

Asbestosis — Workers working in the asbestos industry are caught by the serious lung disease.

Silicosis — caused due to the deposit of silica in the lungs of workers working in silica industries or at the sand blasting sites.

Thalassemia : are inherited blood disorders characterized by abnormal haemoglobin production.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is resistance of a microorganism to an antimicrobial medicine to which it was previously sensitive.

Resistant organisms (they include bacteria, viruses and some parasites) are able to withstand attack by antimicrobial medicines, such as antibiotics, anti-virals, and anti-malarials, so that standard treatments become ineffective and infections persist and may spread to others.
A Roadmap to Tackle the Challenge of Antimicrobial Resistance - A Joint meeting of Medical Societies in India" was organized as a pre-conference symposium of the 2nd annual conference of the Clinical Infectious Disease Society (CIDSCON 2012) at Chennai on 24th August.
This was the first ever meeting of medical societies in India on issue of tackling resistance, with a plan to formulate a road map to tackle the global challenge of antimicrobial resistance from the Indian perspective.
AMR occurs when microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites change in ways that render the medications used to cure the infections they cause ineffective.
GOI has initiated series of actions including setting up a National Surveillance System for AMR, enacted regulations (Schedule-H-1) to regulate sale of antibiotics, brought out National Guidelines for use of antibiotics etc

Probiotics : are microorganisms that provide certain health benefits when consumed.

It is coined by Nobel laureate Elie Metchnikoff, who postulated that yogurt-consuming Bulgarian peasants lived longer lives because of this custom.
He suggested in 1907 that : "the dependence of the intestinal microbes on the food makes it possible to adopt measures to modify the flora in our bodies and to replace the harmful microbes by useful microbes".
A significant expansion of the potential market for probiotics has led to higher requirements for scientific substantiation of putative benefits conferred by the microorganisms.
Curd or yogurt is a very important probiotic that assists gut bacteria to digest food and maintain the health of intestinal walls.

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has set up a National Anti-Microbial Resistance Research and Surveillance Network (AMRRSN) to enable compilation of data of AMR at the national level.

Under AMRRSN, ICMR is carrying out surveillance of drug resistance to antibiotics in the following six pahogenic groups:

Diarrhoeagenic bacterial organisms
Enteric fever pathogens
Enterobacteriaceae causing sepsis
Gramnegative Non-fermenters
Gram positives including MRSA
Fungal infections.

Epigenetics relates to heritable changes in gene function that occur independently of alterations in primary DNA sequence.

The period of development in which the nutritional imbalance occurs is very important in determining which disease-related genes will be affected.
Different organs have critical developmental stages, and the time point at which they are compromised will predispose individuals to specific diseases.
Epigenetic modifications that occur during development may not be expressed until later in life depending on the function of the gene.

While the majority of studies implicate prenatal and perinatal periods as critical time windows, some research has shown that nutritional intake during adulthood can also affect the epigenome.

Nutriepigenomics : study of Food nutrients and their effects on human health through epigenetic modifications.

NCD Non-communicable diseases :

Nutritional imbalances during gestation and lactation are linked to non-communicable diseases, such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension and cancer.
It refer to chronic diseases which last for long periods of time and progress slowly.
If metabolic disturbances occur during critical time windows of development, the resulting epigenetic alterations can lead to permanent changes in tissue and organ structure or function and predispose individuals to disease.

Infection is the invasion of an organism's body tissues by disease-causing agents, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agents and the toxins they produce.

Infectious disease, also known as transmissible disease or communicable disease, is illness resulting from an infection.
Infectious diseases are caused by pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi; the diseases can be spread, directly or indirectly, from one person to another.
Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases of animals that can cause disease when transmitted to humans.
Hosts can fight infections using their immune system. Mammalian hosts react to infections with an innate response, often involving inflammation, followed by an adaptive response.
Specific medications used to treat infections include antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, antiprotozoals, and antihelminthics.
Infectious diseases resulted in 9.2 million deaths in 2013 (about 17% of all deaths).

Another important disease that is infectious is HIV/AIDS.

The department of Biotechnology promotes research & development activity in the area of infectious diseases specifically relevant for the country caused by various pathogenic agents like bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi.

The World Health Organisation (WHO) is set to classify excessive video game playing as signs of a mental disorder for the first time next year. A beta draft of the organisation's forthcoming 11th International Classification of Diseases 2018 (ICD) includes "gaming disorder" in its list of mental health conditions.

Researchers at Kolkata’s Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS) have synthesised a novel compound that shows potent anticancer activity.

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

a self-diagnosable ailment , Treatment for SAD involves enough light exposure, artificial light exposure, sun therapy and drugs, if needed. Therapy is continued until sufficient and daily natural sunlight exposure is available.

CELLULOSE is NOT a Sugar.

Vitamin/ Mineral	Deficiency disease/disorder	Symptoms
Vitamin A	Loss of vision	Poor vision, loss of vision in darkness (night), sometimes complete loss of vision
Vitamin B1	Beriberi	Weak muscles and very little energy to work
Vitamin C	Scurvy	Bleeding gums, wounds take longer time to heal
Vitamin D	Rickets	Bones become soft and bent
Calcium	Bone and tooth decay	Weak bones, tooth decay
Iodine	Goiter	Glands in the neck appear swollen, mental disability in children
Iron	Anaemia	Weakness

Activated charcoal is a type of charcoal that's processed to make it more porous. This porous texture is what distinguishes it from other types of charcoals, including the type used for barbecuing.

Activated charcoal's negatively charged, porous texture helps trap toxins, preventing your body from absorbing them. Activated charcoal works by trapping toxins and chemicals in the gut, preventing their absorption.

Activated charcoal can bind a variety of drugs and toxins, preventing their absorption into the body. It's often used as an anti-poison treatment or to treat drug overdoses.

characteristics are : porous , higher surface area , absorbing toxic and poisonous materials , removing pollutants from air and water streams both in the field and in industrial processes . Carbon adsorption has numerous applications such as spill cleanup, groundwater remediation, drinking water filtration etc.

Activated carbon is also used in water filtration systems

. PATH of UPSC

Configure 1st Line Links here

DropDowner

BIOLOGY Science

Report Abuse