. PATH of UPSC: Ancient History to Medieval History

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History Of Humankind is Divided Into 2 categories

Prehistoric - No Written Records. Only Archaeological Remains Like Stone Tools, Pottery, Artifacts And Metal Implements Are Found
Historic - Written Records Are Found.

The First Inhabitants of Indian Subcontinent Might Have Been Tribals Like

Nagas (North-East),
Santhals (East-India),
Bhils (Central India),
Gonds (Central India),
Todas (South India) Etc.

Most Of Them Are Speakers Of The Austric, Pre-Dravidian Languages, Such As Munda And Gondvi.
Dravidians And Aryans are believed to be Immigrants Who Came Later To The Sub-Continent.

Prehistoric Period is divided based on type of Stone/Metal Tools into STONE , BRONZE & IRON Ages.

Stone Age : classified as

Paleolithic Age

Mesolithic Age

Neolithic Age (Invention of ‘Wheel’.)

Period I, Upper Palaeolithic;
Period II, Mesolithic;
Period III, Chalcolithic.
After Period III there are four successive periods.

Old Paleology era :

We have NO evidences of lower Paleolithic people producing art it is only during Upper Paleolithic that the production of art begins.
The paintings can be divided into 3 categories: human beings, animals and geometric patterns.
The largest number of paintings belongs to Mesolithic age.
Hunting scenes predominate in Mesolithic paintings.

Refer to ART + Culture

Remnants of pre historic paintings have been found on rocks and rock engravings ( called Petrogylps ) in Bhimbetaka , Mirzapur , Pachmarhi of Indian states Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Bihar. They are NOT found in Maharashtra.

Famous sites of Old Stone Age in India are:
a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.
b. The Siwalik hills on the north India.
c. Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh

f. Attirampakkam near Chennai

The rock art of Bhimbetka has been classified into various groups on the bases of style, technique and superimposition. The drawings and paintings can be categorised into seven historical periods.

Kurnool caves are Palaeolithic site in Andhra Pradesh.

Hunting-gathering pattern of life was prevalent since Old stone age to Mesolithic and Neolithic.
However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing. This is how bows and arrows were used in this period.
Domestication of animals, horticulture and primitive cultivation started during Mesolithic period itself. However, during Neolithic period, domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent.
Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport.

Mesolithic paintings :

The largest number of paintings belong to Period II that covers the Mesolithic paintings.
Hunting scenes predominate in Mesolithic paintings.

Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, UP and Bihar.

The first discovery of rock paintings was made in India in 1867–68 by an archaeologist, Archibold Carlleyle, twelve years before the discovery of Altamira in Spain.

Neolithic habitation dating as far back as 7000 BC has been found in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan.
Neolithic sites are
1. Paiyampalli in Tamilnadu cauvery valley south of kurnool
2. Mehrgarh Afghanistan Pakistan border
3. Daojali Hading in Assam

Also include the Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in UP.

First notable civilization flourished in India around 2700 BC in the north western part of the India on the banks of Indus, Ghaggar and its tributaries.

During Neolithic age, wheels were used to make pottery.
Pottery was used for cooking as well as storage of food grains.

During the Neolithic phase, the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life.
There was a great improvement in technology of making tools and other equipments used by man.
Stone tools were now polished.
Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts.
Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead.
Wheat, barely, rice, millets were cultivated in different areas at different points of time.
Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India.
The people of Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool.

Chalcolithic Age – 3000 BC to 1500 BC

Use Of Stone And Well As Copper
Copper Was The First Known Metal To Man
Malwa Ware Is Considered As Richest Among Chalcolithic Ceramics.
Largest Site Of The Chalcolithic Period Is Diamabad Situated On The Left Bank Of The Pravara River.

Harappan Culture is Considered As A Part Of Chalcolithic Culture

Harappan civilization

Pre-Harappan Stage : Located In Eastern Baluchistan At Mehrgarh 150 Miles To Northwest Of Mohenjodaro Agricultural Life.
Early Harappan - Amri & Kot Diji (on the east bank of Indus opposite Mohenjo-daro) - Growth Of Large Villages And Towns􏰌
Mature Harappan - Kalibangan - Rise Of Great Cities
Late Harappan - Lothal Mature As Well As Decling Phase.
Capital Cities – Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Kalibangan
Port Cities – Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi.
􏰌Largest To Smallest Cities Are – Mohenjadaro In Sind (Pak), Ganeriwala In Bahwalpur (Pak), Harappa In West Punjab (Pak), Dholvira In Gujarat (India).
􏰌The Largest Harappan Settlement In India is Rakhigarhi In Haryana but The Latest Is Dholavira In Gujarat.

It is the first known urban culture in India.
Agriculture was the main occupation of the Harappans who were living in rural areas.
The Indus People Were The First To Produce Cotton.
Those living in the cities carried on internal and external trade and developed contacts with other civilizations such as Mesopotamia.
The bronze sculpture of a dancing girl found in Mohenjodaro testifies the sculptural skills
Lothal(First Man Made Port In The World) was a dockyard situated in Dholaka Taluk of Ahmedabad in Gujarat.
important town in Gujarat was Dhaulavira while Kalibangam was in Rajasthan.
In Kalibangan, Fields Were Ploughed With Wooden Ploughs.
Numerous seals carrying the images of the one-horned rhinocerous known as unicorn, peepal leaves and a male god throw light on the religious beliefs of the Harappans
Harappans knew how to write and most of their seals contain some form of script But unfortunately no one has yet been able to decipher that script.
Written From Right From Left And Left To in Alternate Lines Style Known As Boustrophedan.
The Harappan people knew the art of spinning and weaving and were perhaps the first people to cultivate cotton
A large number of Indus seals found in Mesopotamia which indicated of a possible trade between the Indus valley and Mesopotamian civilization.
By 1800 BC the Harappan civilization began declining. However, we do not know the exact reasons why this happened.
There Was No Metallic Money In Circulation And Trade Was Carried Through Barter System only.
Seal-making and teracotta manufacture were important crafts.
The Harappans were also experts in beads making.
Bead Making Factory Existed In Chanhudaro And Lothal.
The potter’s wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own characteristic pottery, which was made glossy and shining pottery.
The Harappans also practised boat-making. They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea. They knew the use of wheel, and carts with solid wheels were in use in Harappa. The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones; the first two may have been obtained from Afghanistan and the last from south India.
Imported Items - Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Lapis Lazuli, -Amethyst, Agate, Jade, Shells.􏰌
Exported Items - Agricultural Products Wheat, Barley, Peas, Oil Seeds, Finished Products Cotton Goods, Pottery, Beads, Shells, Terrocotta Products, Ivory

Terracotta images were not as refined as the stone and bronze statutes, they seem to have been used by the lower classes.
Seals were mainly meant for commercial purpose, they were also used as amulets.
Most of the seals are made of steatite some are made I golden ivory as well.

Pashupati seal - Rhinoceros, Buffalo, Elephant, Tiger EBRT
Two antelopes are shown below the seat. Seals such as these date from between 2500 and 1500 BCE and were found in considerable numbers in sites such as the ancient city of Mohenjodaro in the Indus Valley. Figures and animals are carved in intaglio on their surfaces.
Chief Female Deity Was The Mother Goddess
Phallus (Lingam) And Yoni Worship was Also Prevalent.

Iron Age – 1500 BC to 600 BC

Iron Is Frequently Referred To In The Vedas.
The Iron Age in Southern Peninsula Is Related To As Megalithic Burials.

Megalithic Age:

refers to Burial Monument.
The Dead Body Was Put In A Black And Red Pot Along With Iron Implements And Buried.
A Circular Tomb Using Big Stone Slab Was Upon The Place Of Burial. This Is Called Megalith.
At Kancheepuram, Vellore, Thiruvannamalai, Cudadlore, Thiruchirappalli And Pudukottai.

Site	Excavated by	Year
Harappa	Dayaram Sahni and M.S. Vatsa, (under Sir John Marshal)	1921
Mohanjodaro	RD Banerjee	1922
Chahundaro	Nani Gopal Majumdar Ernest John Henry Mackay	1930 -35
Rakhigarhi	ASI	1963
Lothal	ASI	1954-60
Kalibangan	Italian Luigi Pio Tessitori A Ghosh
Suktagender	George Dales	1962
Surkatoda	J.P. Joshi	1964
Banawali	R.S. Bisht	1973
Dholavira	R S Bisht	1990

Vedic Period :

After the decline of the Harappan civilization , a new culture flourished in the same region and gradually spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains. also known as Aryan culture

Aryans settled on the banks of rivers Indus (Sindhu) and Saraswati (which is now non existent)
Scholars divide the vedic period into the earlier and later Vedic period. The earlier is represented by the RigVeda.
Brahmanas ,Aranyakas and Upanishads were written down later in this period.

800 BC to 600 BC ——> Brahman Era & 600 BC to 300 BC ——> Sutra Era

The region is popularly known as SAPTA SINDHU which means LAND OF 7 RIVERS, which includes Indus and its tributaries - Vitasta, askini,Vipas, parushni, Sutudri and Saraswathi.
The holy book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran.
Boghazkai Inscription of Turkey mentions 4 vedic gods I V M N.

Rivers & Places during Vedic Era :

Social , Religious & Political systems :

The Form of government was of patriarchial nature.
Monarchy was normal but non-monarchial polities were also there.
The Rastra (a collection of Jana otherwise called small tribal groups) was ruled by a King or Rajan and the royal descent was by hereditary based on the law of primogeniture.
Elective monarchy was also known.
Some Jana (Tribal Groups - Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus, Purus.)
The election of king was by tribal assembly called Samiti.
Tribal councils like Sabha, Samiti, Gana and Vidhata also existed. Even women attended vidhata and sabha.
The king was assisted by a number of officers of which Purohita, the religious advisor was the most important, followed by senani, the head of the army.
There was no standing army.
The Army Divided into Sardha, Vrata and Gana (Army, Navy, Air Force)

The functions associated with the priests were:

The Adhvaryu is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the Yajurveda. The adhvaryu offers oblations.
The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from the Samaveda. The udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns.
The Brahmin is the superintendent of the entire performance, and is responsible for correcting mistakes by means of supplementary verses.
The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda.

Rig Veda contains about 250 hymns in praise of Indra who is described as a destroyer of cities and there are 200 hymns in praise of God Agni. Agni is looked upon as an intermediary between gods and humans

Though Aryan society was patriarchal, women were treated with dignity and honour.

The family was the smallest social unit; several families (kula) made a village (grama) and several villages formed a vis.

family —> Kula —> Grama —> Vis ——> tribe or jana —— ruled by RAJANA assisted by the members of two councils called sabha and samiti to protect the tribe from external attack and maintain law and order.

Purohita —> performed religious functions while the senani —> looked after military activities.

There was no concept of the state or kingdom at this stage. Although the post of Rajan had become hereditary, he could be removed from power.

Towards the later Vedic period, society was divided into four varnas - Brahamanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. it is known to be Varna-Vyavastha with the passage of time this division became hereditary and rigid .

Another important social institution was the system of chaturashrama or the division of life span into four distinct stages i.e.

Brahmacharya (period of celibacy, education and disciplined life in guru’s ashram),
Grihastha (a period of family life),
Vanaprastha (a stage of gradual detachment and
Sanyasa (a life dedicated to spiritual pursuit away from worldly life).

these stages were NOT applicable to women or to the people of lower varnas.

Women were respected by the society, enjoyed freedom, had access to education and were often free to choose their partners through swayamvara .
Purdah and sati was not prevalent

ultimate aim of life was to attain moksha or salvation through the pursuit of dharma, artha and kama. Karma or performance of duty without any expectation or return was preached in the Bhagavad Gita.

Vedic people worshipped forces of nature and personified them as gods and goddesses.
Indra,Agni,Varuna,Marut were some of their gods while Usha:Aditi,Prithvi were some of their goddesses

solar Gods and goddesses referred to in the Rig Veda are Surya, Savitri and Pushau

prominent Gods of the early Vedic period like Indra,Agni and Varuna lost their prominence.
a new trinity of Gods where Brahma enjoyed the supreme position, while Vishnu became the preserver and Shiva completed the trinity.
kings performed Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya sacrifies to establish their position
They drank a beverage called Soma. Games of chess, chariot racing etc. were their modes of entertainment.
Bali or voluntary donation was prevalent. Cows were the measure of wealth.
Iron axes enabled them to clear forests leading to the expansion of agriculture throughout the Gangetic plains. Iron tools resulted in varied crafts and technology. Use of iron weapons and horses enabled them to fight wars and defend themselves better against enemies.

High quality earthenware called ‘Painted Grey Ware’ and ‘Northern Black Polished Ware’ have been found in many areas

Vedic period earlier also known as Brahmanism because the Brahmins played a major role in it and later as Hinduism
Brahmins considered themselves superior to the other varnas and became arrogant. This led to the unpopularity of Brahminism and a need for reforms was felt

Sati is not featured directly in the earliest religious texts and is referred to infrequently in the later literature leading up to the Christian era. The first instance of sati can be traced back only to the 4th century B.C.
The Visnu Parana, Padma Purana, Bhagavata and Brahma Purana also cite instances of sati, thus indicating that the institution was slowly emerging in our society between A.D. 400 and 600.

Early writers on Smriti - i.e. texts on codes of conduct, such as Vasistha or Yajnavalkya have not spoken on the issue of sati let alone endorse or recommend the custom. Vasistha allows the remarriage of women in certain unusual circumstances, such as a husband who is insane. However, rather than allowing remarriage, Yajnavalkya prescribes the duties of a widow.

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Persian Invasion :

Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, and his successor Darius I annexed parts of Punjab and Sindh.
Persian title of satrapa (governor) continued to be used by the Indian provincial governors as kshtrapa.
Persian scribes brought into India a new style of writing called kharoshthi derived from the Aramaic script, which was written from right to left. Many of Asoka’s inscriptions found in north western India are witten in kharoshthi.

Greek Invasion :

The Achaemenid empire (of Persia) was finally destroyed by the Greeks under the leadership of Alexander of Macedon.
Alexander’s army refused to march ahead when they heard about the vast army and the strength of the Nandas of Magadha.
The combination of the Greek and the Indian style formed the Gandhara School of art.
The social and economic condition of India of that time are known from the Greek accounts left by Arrian, admiral Nearchus, and Megasthenes.

MAURYA EMPIRE :

ASHOKA THE GREAT :

he adopted the policy of Dhamma Vijaya that is conquest through dhamma. Ashoka was a true humanist.
himself a Buddhist, never sought to impose his personal religion on his subjects.
He gave his empire a common Dhamma, a common language, and practically one script (Brahmi) he brought further political unification.
He made gifts and grants to non Buddhist as well as anti-Buddhist.
Ashoka is known to have built 84,000 stupas to commemorate various events of Buddha’s life.
According to Megasthenes, Pataliputra’s grandeur matched that of the cities of Persia.
The best preserved of all Ashokan edicts stands at Lauriya Nandangarh (Bihar).
The bull capital from Rampura is also another fine example of Mauryan sculpture.
The most famous capital is the one at Sarnath, which shows four lions and the Dharmachakra which is adopted as the national emblem of the Republic of India
Yakshi from Didarganj made from one single stone are polished with a unique surface gloss (now called Mauryan polish). all these centuries this gloss has not lost its shine.
Ashoka’s Inscriptions were written in PRAKRIT language and BRAHMI script.
Lomash Rishi (with its impressive entrance) and the Sudama caves are examples of rock cut caves architecture.

Important feature of Ashoka’s Dhamma :

Efficient organization of administration in the direction of social welfare and maintenance of constant contact with people through the system of Dhammayatras (tours).

Service to father and mother, practice of ahimsa, love of truth, reverence to teachers and good treatment of relatives.

Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and avoiding expensive and meaningless ceremonies and rituals.

Humane treatment of servants by masters and prisoners by government officials.

Consideration and non-violence to animals and courtesy to relations and liberality to Brahmins.

Dhamma Mahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust imprisonment. Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asoka’s inscriptions. But, he did not advocate non-punishment.

Ashokan inscriptions (first deciphered by James Princep) are written in Pali language and in some places Prakrit was used.

The Brahmi script was employed for writing.
In the northwestern India Asokan inscriptions were found in Karoshti script.
There are 14 Major Rock Edicts. The two Kaling Edicts are found in the newly conquered territory. The major pillar Edicts were erected in important cities. There are minor Rock Edicts and minor pillar Edicts.
In his Bhabru Inscription , He described himself “Devanampriyadasina”

Ashokan Pillar - Horse, Bull, Elephant, Lion EBHL

The four animals in the Lion Capital are believed to symbolize different phases in Lord Buddha’s life.
The Elephant is a representation of Queen Maya’s conception of Buddha when she saw a white elephant entering her womb in a dream.
The Bull represents desire during the life of the Buddha as a prince.
The Horse symbolizes Buddha’s departure from palatial life.
The Lion represents the attainment of Nirvana by Lord Buddha.

There are also non-religious symbolic interpretations of the Lion Capital believing the four lions symbolize Ashoka’s rule over the four directions, the wheels as symbols of his enlightened rule and the four animals as symbols of four adjoining territories of India.

The emblem is girded by four smaller animals (other than the Lion) - guardians of the four directions: the lion of the north, the elephant of the east, the horse of the south and the bull of the west. The abacus rests on a lotus in full bloom, exemplifying the fountainhead of life and creative inspiration.

Maurya Administration :

A council of ministers called Mantriparishad assisted the king in administrative matters.
It consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja.
Amatyas were similar to the IAS officers of independent India. The method of selection of Amatyas was elaborately given by Kautilya.
Department of Commerce and Industry had controlled the retail and wholesale prices of goods and tried to ensure their steady supply through its officers called Adyakshas. It also controlled weights and measures, levied custom duties and regulated foreign trade.
Selection process was different for different officials.
Asoka also appointed Dhamma Mahamatras to supervise the spread of Dhamma.
Even the military service was well organized. The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the control of Senapati. The salaries were paid in cash. Kautilya refers to the salaries of different ranks of military officers.

KUSHANAS PERIOD :

The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago.
Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura.
During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire.
The Kushanas were amongst the earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue GOLD Coins.

Kanishk : At the time of his accession his empire included Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind and Punjab. Subsequently he conquered Magadha and extended his power as far as Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya. This evidence comes from his coins that are found in the gangetic plains.
Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign. However, his coins exhibit the images of not only Buddha but also Greek and Hindu gods.

Satavahana Empire

Vashishtaputra Pulamayi extended the Satavahana power up to the mouth of the Krishna river.
He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed which reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas.
Their greatest port was Kalyani on the west Deccan.
Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports.
The last great ruler of Satavahanas was Yajna Sri Satakarni.

Post Mauryan ERA :

It should be noted that large scale assimilation of foreigners ( Greeks, Shakas, Parthians and Kushanas ) into the Indian society took place only in the post-Mauryan times.

Many foreign rulers adopted Vaishnavism. In the Besnagar Pillar incription, Heliodorus (the Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas) describes himself as a Bhagavata i.e. worshipper of Vishnu. some coins of Kanishka also show the figures of Shiva. Kushan rulers was called Vasudeva, clearly indicating his vaishnava faith.

the year of Kanishka’s accession i.e. 78 A.D marks the beginning of the Saka era.

Menander converted to Buddhism. Kanishka too is remembered for his services to buddhism in 4th Buddhist council in Kashmir and also set up many stupas in memory of the Buddha.

Buddhism split into two schools: the Mahayana or the Great Wheel and the Hinayana or the Small Wheel.

Mahayana believed in image worship, rituals and Bodhisattvas, (incarnations of Buddha) while Hinayana continued the practices of the earlier Buddhism.

The Mahayana received royal patronage from Kanishka.

Gandhara school of art borrowed features from both the Greek and Roman art forms.

Many images of the Buddha from the Kushan period have Apollonian faces, their hair is in the Graeco-Roman style and their draperies arranged in the style of a Roman toga.

Mathura was the centre of the indigenous school of art, was also influenced by the invasions had number of images from of terracotta and red sandstone. Mathura school became the first to make faces and figures of the Buddha.

Besides the images of Buddha, which were made in large numbers, statues of Mahavira were also produced.

Satavahanas

They are in the Deccan held an important position under the Mauryas. After the death of Ashoka, they assumed total independence and made their capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the river Godavari.
Under Gautamiputra and his son Vasishthiputra Satkarni Satavahanas became very powerful.
The most important ruler of the Satavahanas, Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the Dakshinapatha.

Kalinga included modern Orissa and parts of Northern Andhra had most important ruler Kharavela. Hathigumpha Inscription in a Jain cave at Udaigiri hills would give us a detailed account of his reign but unfortunately it is not easily decipherable.

GUPTA Periods :

SOCIAL Status

Swaymvara was the practice of women choosing their own partners by way of a competition/selection. When this was given up, women lost an important right. Manusmriti (law book) further entrenched patriarchal rules to worsen the position of women.
Women were prohibited from studying religious texts. This ensured the domination of men over women.
The male members of a family were entitled to inherit property left behind by their fathers. However, such right of inheritance was not given to women or girls. The power of inheritance enabled the male members of a family to exercise dominance over the women.

Evidences of Gupta Period :

The Meherauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions the extensive conquests of Chandragupta I. He is considered to be the founder of the Gupta era which starts with his accession in 320.
Puranas throw light on the royal genealogy of the Gupta kings.
Devichandraguptam and Mudhrakshasam provide information regarding the rise of the Guptas.
The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that Samudragupta defeated 12 rulers in his South Indian Expedition.
Fahien’s account :

His main interest of visiting India was religious as to see the land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist manuscripts from India.
Out of his 9 years stay in India, he spent 6 years in the Gupta empire during reign of Chandragupta II.
He came to India by the land route through Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara and Punjab , visited Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara, Pataliputra, Kasi and Bodh Gaya among other places.
He returned by the sea route, visiting on the way Ceylon and Java.
He stayed in Pataliputra for 3 years studying Sanskrit and copying Buddhist texts.

Amongst the archaeological finds from the mound include 'Painted Grey Ware' shreds in the pre-Kushana levels and 'Red Polished Ware' from post Gupta period.

Gupta Period :

Gupta art can be seen at the Dashavatara temple of lord vishnu at Deogarh( Lalitpur,UP ) in 500 CE and the cave temples in Udaigiri hills.

Most famous examples of Gupta art that still remain are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from Sarnath.

2 metre high bronze image of Buddha has been discovered at Sultanganj (near Bhagalpur in Bihar)

the sculptures in caves created during this period are traced to the famous Ellora Caves.

Painting as an art form reached a high degree of perfection during the Gupta times. The wall frescoes at the Ajanta caves (Aurangabad) and the one at Bagh caves (near Gwalior) had paintings during Gupta period.

Vakatakas (250 - 500 AD) :

They tried to build a strong state in Malwa and Gujarat, with Capital at Washim but they did not last long were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan and contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India.
Vakataka is Brahmin dynastyand little is known about Vindhyashakti (c. 250 – c. 270 CE), the founder of the family.
Vakataka power was followed by that of the Chalukyas of Badami in Deccan.
The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.

Harsha Period (606-647 AD) :

Empire of Harsha ( Kanauj , Xuanzang, Pulkeshin II, Tripartite struggle ) 606-647 CE

Founded and ruled by Emperor Harsha from the capital Kannauj which existed from 606 to 647 CE and at its height covered all of North India.
The peace and prosperity that prevailed made the court of Harsha a center of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide, such as the Chinese traveler Xuanzang.
His long run of victories was only broken when he was defeated by Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty.
Harsha's father, Prabhakarvardhana, was from Thanesar, his brother followed Hinayana Buddhism while, according to Bana, Harsha himself was a Mahayana Buddhist.
Harsha was a tolerant ruler and supported all Indic faiths – Buddhism, Vedism and Jainism. Early in his life, he seems to have been a follower of Sun Worship, becoming a patron of Shaivism and Buddhism later on.

In his early life, Harsha was a devout Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist.
Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism. This led him to shed eating meat and enforce the same as well.
Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account about the conference held at Allahabad, known as Prayag. It was the one among the conferences routinely convened by Harsha once in 5 years.
Harsha gave away his enormous wealth as gifts to the members of all religious sects. According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha was so lavish that he emptied the treasury and even gave away the clothes and jewels he was wearing. His statement might be one of admiring exaggeration.
The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj that lasted for more than two centuries between the Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara Pratihara Empire

SOCIAL Status :

The Brahmins were the privileged section of the society and they were given land grants by the kings.
Hiuen Tsang mentions that the Sudras practiced agriculture. Hiuen Tsang mentions 3 ways of disposal of the dead – cremation, water burial and exposure in the woods.
The position of women was not satisfactory. The institution of Swyamvara (the choice of choosing her husband) had declined.
Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly among the higher castes.
The system of dowry had also become common.
The practice of sati was also prevalent.
Trade and commerce had declined during Harsha’s period, which is evident from the decline of trade centres, less number of coins, and slow activities of merchant guilds.
The decline of trade in turn affected the handicrafts industry and agriculture.
Since there was no large-scale demand for goods, the farmers began to produce only in a limited way which led to the rise of self-sufficient village economy.

Chalukya Dynasty : 543-753 CE

After the Vakatakas, the Chalukyas of Vatapi and Kalyani came. Pulakesin was a powerful ruler of the Chalukya dynasty. Chalukyas kept fighting with the Rashtrakutas (towards the north) and the Pallavas (towards the south).
The Chalukya rule came to an end in 753 A.D. when the Rashtrakutas defeated them.

Many of the sculptures of the Ellora caves were created at this time under the patronage of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.

They ruled as three related yet individual dynasties.

The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from 6th century to 8th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II.
After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century.
In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.

Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Veerashaiva traditions.

ADMINISTRATION :

The Chalukya administration was highly centralized unlike that of the Pallavas and the Cholas.
Village autonomy was absent under the Chalukyas.

ARCHITECTURE:

The Chalukyas were great patrons of art. They developed the VESARA style in the building of structural temples. However, the vesara style reached its culmination only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas.
Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Chalukyas. Their cave temples are found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.
Their structural temples exist at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. The best specimens of Chalukya paintings can be seen in the Badami.

Tripartite struggle on Kannauj :

To control of northern India in 9th century, the struggle was between the Pratihara Empire, the Pala Empire and the Rashtrakuta Empire.
After Emperor Harsha's death in 647 AD resulting in a great confusion due to the absence of his heirs, About AD 730, Yashovarman(dynasty not known) established a kingdom at Kannauj but his position was dependent upon an alliance with Lalitaditya Muktapida( most powerful ruler of the Karkota dynasty of Kashmir region).
Yashovarman's invasion of Gauda (Bengal) formed the subject of the Prakrit poem Gaudavaho (Slaying of the king of Gauda), composed by his courtier Vakapatiraja in the 8th century.

After Yashovarman, 3 kings — Vijrayudha, Indrayudha and Chakrayudha — ruled over Kannauj between close of the 8th century till the 820s.
Taking advantage of the weakness of these Ayudha rulers and attracted by the immense strategic and economic potentialities of the kingdom of Kannauj, the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Bhinmal (Rajasthan), the Palas of Bengal and Bihar and the Rashtrakutas of the Manyakheta (Karnataka) fought against each other.
Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Vatsraja successfully challenged and defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala and Rashtrakuta king Dantidurga for control of Kannauj.
Around 786, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva (c.780–793) crossed the Narmada River into Malwa, and from there tried to capture Kannauj.
Vatsraja was defeated by Dhruva Dharavarsha of Rashtrakuta dynasty around 800.
Vatsraja was succeeded by Nagabhata II (805–833), who was initially defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III (793–814), but later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas, conquered Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the Palas and again checked the Muslims in the west.
He rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat, which had been demolished in an Arab raid from Sindh.
Kannauj became the center of the Gurjara-Pratihara state, which covered much of northern India during the peak of their power in 836–910.

This tripartite struggle for Kannauj lingered for almost 2 centuries and ultimately ended in favour of the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Nagabhata II who made the city the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara state, which ruled for nearly 3 centuries.

Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty 650-1036 AD

From the mid-7th to the 11th century, They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Caliphate campaigns in India.
Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India & conquered Kannauj.
He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja (or Adi Varah) .
Under Mihir Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power.
By the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivalled that of the Gupta Empire stretching from the border of Sindh in the west to Bengal in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to areas past the Narmada in the south.
The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian Subcontinent.
During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title of Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta (Great King of Kings of India).
Their last important king, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018.

Pratihara Rulers	Contributions
Nagabhata I (730–760)	Extended his control east and south from Mandor, conquering Malwa, Gwalior and port of Bharuch in Gujarat. He established his capital at Avanti in Malwa, and checked the expansion of the Arabs.
Kakustha and Devaraja (760–780)	Weak Rulers
Vatsaraja (780–800)	First ruler of Rajasthan to win victories over the distant regions of Kanauj and Bengal.
Nagabhata II (800–833)	Designated with titles Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, & Paramesvara after conquest of Kannauj. Also mentioned in the Gwalior inscription. He defeated the rulers of Andhra, Vidarbha, Kalinga, Matsyas, Vatsas and the Turks. Conquered Kanauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the Palas, and again checked the Muslims in the west.
Ramabhadra (833–836)	According to Jain Prabhavakacarita, Nagabhata II was succeeded by Ramabhadra
Mihira Bhoja or Bhoja I (836–885)	Devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha which is inscribed on some of his coins. Mihira Bhoja's epithet was Srimad-Adivaraha (the fortunate primeval boar incarnation of Vishnu).
Mahendrapala I (885–910)	Mentioned on various inscriptions in Kathiawar, Punjab and Madhya Pradesh by names Mahindrapala, Mahendrayudha, Mahisapaladeva Also Nirbhayaraja and Nirbhayanarendra in the plays of Rajasekhara the Court poet.
Bhoja II (910–913)	overthrown by his step-brother Mahipala I
Mahipala I (913–944)	known by the names: Ksitipala, Vinayakapala, Herambapala and Uttarapatha Swami. Court poet Rajasekhara calls him Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta in Kavyamimansa. Kannada poet Pampa expressly calls "Gurjararaja" carried forward the work of his ancestors.
Mahendrapala II (944–948)	inscription found at Mandasor indicates that Gurjara Pratihara Empire was extended up to Mandasor during his reign
Devapala (948–954)
Vinayakapala (954–955)
Mahipala II (955–956)
Vijayapala II (956–960)
Rajapala (960–1018)	was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018
Trilochanapala (1018–1027)
Yasahpala (1024–1036	Last Ruler of Pratihara

PALA Empire 8th-12th Century:

originated in the region of Bengal

- They were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism.
- The empire was founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in 750 CE.

Name of Pala Rulers	Contributions
Gopala I	Pala dynasty was founded by Gopala in 750 AD, who was a chieftain earlier but later became the king of Bengal. He was the first Buddhist king of Bengal & established his dominance after Gauda dynasty lost their stronghold in Kamarupa. Bengal and most of the part of Bihar was under his control. He was elected by a group of regional chieftains and then after he founded the dynasty. He constructed a monastery at the Odantapuri in Bihar. Ramacharita was written in his reign in which Pala rulers was as the descended of Solar Dynasty.
Dharmapala	He was real founder of Pala Dynasty (770-810) because he greatly expanded the boundaries of the empire, and made the Palas a dominant power in the northern and eastern India. He was a great patron of Buddism. He revived the Nalanda university and founded Vikramshila university(in Bhagalpur, Bihar). He built great Vihara at Somapuri in Verendri and Vihara in Paharpur. He fought a prolonged war against the Gurjar Pratihara and Rashtrakutas. Despite his humiliating defeat against Gurajara Pratihara King Nagabhatta II, he managed to salvage the pride of Pala Empire and extended his kingdom to entire Bengal and Bihar.
Devapala	He was staunch Buddhist and constructed many temples & monasteries in Magadha. He patronized the Vikramashila University and the Nalanda University. Famous poet Vajradatta who was author of Lokesvarashataka, was one of the gems of his court. He expanded the realm of the authority of Pala Empire by conquering present day Assam and Orissa.
Mahendrapala	Jagjivanpur copper plate states that he was son of Devapala and younger brother of Shurapala I.
Shurapala I	As per Jagjivanpur inscription, He was younger brother and royal envoy of Mahendrapala.
Vigrahapala I	He ruled for very short period and after that became ascetic.
Narayanapala	Badal pillar inscription of his minister Bhatta Guravamishra provide information about his reign.
Rajyapala	7th ruler of the Pala dynasty and was succeeded by his son Gopala II.
Gopala II	8th ruler of the Pala dynasty who ruled for 20 years and was succeeded by Vigrhapala.
Vigrahapala II	9th ruler of Pala dynasty and was succeeded by Mahipala.
Mahipala I	One of mighty rulers of Pala dynasty who expanded his boundaries as far as Varanasi. Known as the second founder of Pala Dynasty, he recovered all the lost territories of the Pala Empire.
Nayapala	11th ruler of Pala dynasty defeated the Kalachuri king Karna.
Vigrahapala III	12th ruler of Pala dynasty and ruled for 15 years.
Mahipala II	13th ruler of the Pala dynasty and ruled for 5 years. He was succeeded by Shurapala II.
Shurapala	14th ruler of the Pala who ruled for two years. He was succeeded by Ramapala.
Ramapala	15th ruler of the Pala dynasty. Sandhyakar Nandi, was his court poet who wrote a Sanskrit two meaning base poem-like novel Ramacharitam.
Kumarapala	16th ruler of the Pala line reigning for 10 years & succeeded by Gopala III.
Gopala III	17th ruler of the Pala dynasty and ruled for 4 years & succeeded by Madanapala.
Madanapala Govindapala	18th ruler of Pala lineage and ruled for 18 years. Last ruler of Pala lineage but his lineage is questionable.

Rashtrakuta Empire 753-982 AD:

Amoghavarsha I (or Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I ) (800–878 CE) was a Rashtrakuta emperor,

The greatest ruler of the Rashtrakuta dynasty & one of the great emperors of India
His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated monarchical reigns on record.
Many Kannada and Sanskrit scholars prospered during his rule, including the great Indian mathematician Mahaviracharya who wrote Ganita-sara-samgraha, Jinasena, Virasena, Shakatayan and Sri Vijaya (a Kannada language theorist).
Amoghavarsha I was an accomplished poet and scholar , wrote (or co-authored) the Kavirajamarga in Kanadda, the earliest extant literary work in Kannada, and Prashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious work in Sanskrit.
During his rule he held such titles as Nrupathunga, Atishadhavala, Veeranarayana, Rattamarthanda and Srivallabha.
He moved the Rashtrakuta regal capital from Mayurkhandi in the Bidar district to Manyakheta in the Gulbarga district in the modern Karnataka state.
He is said to have built the regal city to "match that of Lord Indra". The capital city was planned to include elaborately designed buildings for the royalty using the finest of workmanship.
The Arab traveler Sulaiman described Amoghavarsha as one of the four great kings of the world. Sulaiman also wrote that Amoghavarsha respected Muslims and that he allowed the construction of mosques in his cities.
For his religious temperament, his interest in the fine arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, historian Panchamukhi has compared him to the legendary emperor Ashoka and given him the honorific "Ashoka of the South”.
Amoghavarsha seems to have entertained the highest admiration for the language, literature and culture of the Kannada people as testified to in the text Kavirajamarga - the first poetic work in Kannada language. The name literally means "Royal Path for Poets" and was written as a guide book for poets and scholars (Kavishiksha).

Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue. The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.

Chandelas Dynasty of Jejakabhukti (9th-13th Century)

Nannuka (r. c. 831-845 CE) was founder of the Chandela dynasty of India.
were a royal dynasty in Central India , ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called Jejakabhukti) between the 9th and the 13th centuries.
The Chandelas initially ruled as feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Kanyakubja (Kannauj). The 10th century Chandela ruler Yashovarman became practically independent.
By the time of his successor Dhanga (Dhangadeva), the Chandelas had become a sovereign power.

GANGA DYNASTY :

It was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka. Some experts believe that the dynasty lasted from about 350 to 1000 AD.
They are known as ‘Western Gangas’ to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (modern Odisha).
The Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava empire in South India.
After the rise of the imperial Chalukyas of Badami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi.
The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 AD ganga dynasty

architecture as the dominant power in the Deccan.

The Western Gangas accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the Chola Dynasty of Tanjavur. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region. They showed tolerance towards all faiths. They are most famous for their patronage toward Jainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as Bahuballi in Shravanabelagola and Panchakuta Basadi in Kambadahalli.

Ganga + Chalukya —— Against Pallava

Ganga + Rashtrakutta —— Against Chola

Pallava DYNASTY :

The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system.
The Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king.
It was also the responsibility of the central government to provide irrigation facilities to the lands.
Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to the government.
The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas and their committees. They maintained records of all village lands, looked after local affairs and managed temples.
Pallava age was a great age of temple building.
It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas and culminated in structural temples.
The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen in several stages, which started with Mahendravarman I introducing rock-cut temples.
This style of Pallava temples are seen at places like Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam and Tirukalukkunram.

Pallavas had a well-organized administrative system.

The King provided land-grants to the temples known as Devadhana & also to the Brahmans known as Brahmadeya.

Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue.

Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.

Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washermen, oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to the government.

Mahendravarman I

He was a follower of Jainism in the early part of his career and later converted to Saivism which led him to built a Siva temple at Tiruvadi.
He was a great builder of cave temples.
The Mandagappattu inscription hails him as Vichitrachitta (the man with new fangled ideas) who constructed a temple for Brahma, Vishnu and Siva without the use of bricks, timber, metal and mortar.
His rock-cut temples are found in a number of places like Tiruchirappalli.
His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents in painting. He is also regarded as an expert in music.
The music inscription at Kudumianmalai is ascribed to him.
One of the greatest of the rulers of the Pallava dynasty, was found of painting and is said to have commissioned a scholar at his court to pen down an instruction manual for painters, which is a treatise on south Indian paintings called Dakshinachitra. Unfortunately, it has been lost in the course of time.

SANGAM AGE

FACTS about Sangam Age :

Full-blown language with its own system of writing, at least by third century BC.
Megalithic culture which dates to C. 500 B.C. and A.D. 100 brings us to the historical period in South India(graves are called Megaliths because they were encircled by big pieces of stone.)
Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras and Satyaputras mentioned in Ashoka’s inscriptions (he maintained friendly relations) were probably in the Megalithic phase of material culture.
They are also mentioned in Khervela’s Hathigumpha Inscriptions and Megasthenes’s works.
About the beginning of the Christian era, the Megalithic culture was overlapped by Andhra Culture, on account of occurrence of Andhra coins.
Distinctive pottery of the period was a white painted reddish brown ware known as the Russet-coated Painted Ware.
The word ‘Sangam’ is associated with South Indian history where a college or assembly of Tamil scholars and poets flourished under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai.
It extends roughly between 300 B.C. and 300 A.D.
There was existence of 3 Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly called Muchchangam

Sangam Period :

Sangam period extended from roughly 400 BC to 200 AD (early Chola period before the interregnum), when the earliest extant works of Tamil literature were written.
The traditional accounts of Iraiyanar Ahapporul mention that there were three Sangams (I, II and III) held, which flourished for 9990 years at frequent intervals.
These were attended by over 8598 scholars. Sage Agastyar was the founding father. The Ahapporul commentary also mentions about their successive order and the deluges occurring during the intervals between them.
These Sangams or academies were patronized by 197 Pandyan kings. According to the tradition, of the three successive Sangams the first two belong to prehistory. All the three were held in the capital of the Pandyas.
As the capital was shifted from time to time, old Madurai was the headquarters of the first Sangam, and the second academy was held at Kapatapuram. Both these centres were washed away by the sea during successive deluges.
The third Sangam was located in modern Madurai founded by Mudathirumaran..
Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period.
The king also used to take the advice of his minister, court-poet and the imperial court or avai.
Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal Emblem - carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow for the Cheras.
The military administration was also efficiently organized during the Sangam Age.
The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in folk songs and folk dances.

Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar.

The king was assisted by a large body of officials who were divided into five councils. AASTO
They were ministers (Amaichar), priests (Anthanar), military commanders (Senapathi), envoys or ambassador (Thuthar) and spies (Orrar).

Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period.

Chera kings assumed titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar.
Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi
Pandya kings Thennavar and Minavar.

Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal emblem – carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow for the Cheras.

Love marriage was a common practice in the Sangam age. Women were allowed to choose their life partners. However, the life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati was prevalent in the higher strata of society. Even in Cholas, practice of ‘sati’ was prevalent among the royal families.
The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during the Chola period. There is evidence that they were often subjected to harassment by priets and officials.
Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in the sangam period and contributed to Tamil literature.

Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands –

Kurinji (hilly tracks),
Mullai (pastoral),
Marudam (agricultural),
Neydal (coastal)
Palai (desert)

The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.
Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection
Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products
Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture
Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.

Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery

In Sangam Age, Tolkappiyam refers to 4 castes namely Arasar, Anthanar(polity & religion), Vanigar(trade & commerce) and Vellalar (agriculturists )
Trade in cotton cloth was one of the main sources of Cholas wealth.
The Cholas also maintained an efficient navy.
Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to Tamil literature.

Sangam LITERATURE :

secular in nature

had long and short poems composed by various poets in praise of numerous heroes and heroines.
Modern scholarship use the term ‘Sangam Literature’ for only those works in verse (prose is of much later origin), which are comprised in the Ettutogai (Eight collections), Pattupattu (Ten songs) and Patinenkilkanakku (The Eighteen Minor Works), which are judged to have been produced in that order during the period A.D 150-250.
The so called ‘Five Epics’ (‘the five great poems’) include Jivakachintamani, Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Valayapathi and Kundalakesi.
These are assigned much later dates.
These poetical works describe about the social, religious, economic and political conditions of Tamilakam with the focus on the cities like Madurai, Puhar (Poompuhar/ Kaveripattinam), Vanji (Karur) and Kanchi.
Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. Sangam literature deals with emotional and material topics such as love, war, governance, trade and bereavement. These poems were later collected into various anthologies, edited, and with colophons added by anthologists and annotators around 1000 AD. Sangam literature fell out of popular memory soon thereafter, until they were rediscovered in the 19th century by scholars such as Arumuga Navalar, C. W. Thamotharampillai and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer.

The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epic – Silappathigaram(written by Elango Adigal ) and Manimegalai(by Sittalai Sattanar ).

Silappathigaram or Silappatikaram : a poetic rendition with details of Tamil culture; its varied religions; its town plans and city types; the mingling of different people; and the arts of dance and music. It is one of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature.

It dated to likely belong to the beginning of Common era, although the author might have built upon a pre-existing folklore to spin this tale. The story involves the three Tamil kingdoms of the ancient era, which were ruled by the Chola, Pandyan and Chera dynasties. Silappatikaram has many references to historical events and personalities, although it has not been accepted as a reliable source of history by many historians because of the inclusion of many exaggerated events and achievements to the ancient Tamil kings.

Silappadikaram refers to the two types of system of checks and balance in councils —Aimperunkulu and Enperayam. The two worked as Administrative bodies and functioned as generally advisory in character.

Aimperunkulu or the council of 5 members was the council of the ministers.
Enperayam or the great assembly (perayam) consisted of 8 members (government officers)

“Manimekalai is a sequel to Silappatikaram”.

Manimekalai by the poet Chithalai Chathanar, is one of The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature according to later Tamil literary tradition.^.

Manimekalai is a poem in 30 cantos. In this Epic Author has compared Buddhism favourably with the other prevailing religions in South India in order to propagate Buddhism. Its story is a sequel to another of the Five Great Epics, Silappatikaram, and tells the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who became a Buddhist Bikkuni. Author criticizes Hinduism, and exposes the weaknesses of the other contemporary Indian religions, while praising the Buddha's Teaching, the Dharma, as the most perfect religion.

—> The first literary works in Malayalam, dated to about the 12th century, are directly indebted to Sanskrit. Interestingly enough, a 14th-century text, the Lilatilakam, dealing with grammar and poetics, was composed in Manipravalam literally, “diamonds and corals” referring to the two languages, Sanskrit and the regional language.

Muventars

The ruling monarchs of three chiefdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas together were called Muventars.
Ashokan edicts also mention the Muventars.
Megasthenes (the Greek historian of Hellinistic period) has also mentioned Muventars.
Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast.
They would frequently wage war against one another under a period of instabilityuntil the Imperial period of Rajaraja I who united Tamilakam(Ancient Tamil Country) under one leadership.
First in Tolkappiyam among Tamil literature who was the first to call them Three Glorified by Heaven.
Ptolemy and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mention three kingdoms ruling Tamilakam.

Worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature. He was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu.

The Cholas ruled over the fertile Kaveri basin with Uraiyur as its capital and the important port was Puhar or Kaveripattinam. Karikala (follower of the Vedic religion) was the most important ruler of Chola kingdom defeated the combined forces of the Cheras and the Pandays. in Chola, village panchayat called sahha or ur had extensive powers.
The Pandyas ruled over the pastoral and littoral parts with Madurai as capital and Korkai as important port. Nedunjeliyan was the most famous king. Pandyan empire was founded by a woman king. She maintained a huge army. She also encouraged trade and patronised art as well as literature.
The Cheras controlled the hilly region in the west with Vanji or Karur as its capital and Muciris as the well known port. The important ruler of the kingdom was Udeyinjiral. The king was called the ventan, and this was not only the time of great kings but also great chieftains who were subordinates of the kings. These chieftains were divided into two—velir and non-velir. There were three kinds of chiefdoms in Tamilakam— Velir or bigger chiefs, Vedar or the biggest chiefs and Kizar who were headman of a small village (ur) bound the kingship.

Muventars ——>	Chola	Pandya	Chera
Location —>	Kaveri Basin	pastoral and littoral parts	hilly region in the west
Capital —>	Uraiyur	Madurai	Vanji or Karur
Famous Sea Port —>	Puhar or Kaveripattinam	Korkai	Mujiris
Famous King —>	Karikal	Nedunjeliyan	Udeyinjiral

Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.

The period from the beginning of the Ist century B.C. to the end of 2nd century A.D. is called the Sangam period of the history of South India. In Sangam Tamil lexicon the word Pandya means old country in contrast with Chola meaning new country, Chera meaning hill country and Pallava meaning branch in Sanskrit.
According to Periplus there were three types of vessels in use in South India. These included small coasting vessels, large coasting vessels and ocean-going ships. There is also the mention of large vessels called Colandia sailing from the Tamil Coast to the Ganges.

Chola kings gave some rich landowners titles like muvendavelan (a velan or peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief), etc. as markers of respect, and entrusted them with important offices of the state at the centre.

Tamil culture reached its peak under Cholas.

Periya Puranam: Lives of the Nayanars
Kalingattupparani: Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga
Moovarula: Life of Chola kings
Kalladam: Work on Tamil grammar

SOCIAL STATUS :

In the Tamil region at least 3 different kinds of people living in most villages in the southern India. VUKA

large landowners were known as vellalar,
ordinary ploughmen were known as uzhavar,
landless labourers, including slaves, were known as kadaisiyar and adimai.

—> Yavanas are mentioned in detail in Sangam literature epics such as Pattinappalai, describing their brisk trade with the Early Cholas in the Sangam period.

Greeks, Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians were called Yavanas. Later they adopted to the indian society.

VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE :

SOCIAL & RELIGIOUS

Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity But other dynasties were Vaishnavites.
Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular But all kings were tolerant towards other religions.
Borbosa referred to the religious freedom enjoyed by everyone.
Muslims were employed in the administration and they were freely allowed to build mosques and worship.
A large number of temples were built during this period and numerous festivals were celebrated.
The Epics and the Puranas were popular among the masses.
The position of women had NOT improved However, some of them were learned. Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana authored the famous work Maduravijayam.
Hannamma and Thirumalamma were famous poets of this period.
According to Nuniz, a large number of women were employed in royal palaces as dancers, domestic servants and palanquin bearers. The attachment of dancing girls to temples was in practice. Paes refers to the flourishing devadasi system.
Polygamy was prevalent among the royal families.
Sati was honoured and Nuniz gives a description of it.

ARCHITECTURE

The temple building activity further gained momentum during the Vijayanagar rule.
The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises.
The sculptures on the pillars were carved with distinctive features. The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars(YALI).
Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as well as one thousand pillars in some big temples. These mandapams were used for seating the deity on festival occasions.
Also, many Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during this period.
The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi ruins or the city of Vijayanagar.
Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples were the best examples of this style.
The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture.
Dasara Dibba or the Mahanavami Dibba is a beautiful stone platform located within the Royal Enclosure of Hampi & was built during the Vijayanagara period by King Krishnadevaraya to commemorate his victory over Udaygiri.

Administration :

The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was organized in the way that the king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal.
The king was assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration. But, word of the king was final. Moreover, the succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary.

Early MUSLIM Attacks on India :

Muhammad bin Qasim 712 AD (1st muslim to attack on India)

Mahmud Ghazni 1001 (battle of Waihind with Anandpala) , poets : Firdausi , Al-biruni

Muhammad Ghori 1191 (Battle of Tarain with PR Chauhan) , 1192 ( 2nd Battle of Tarain killed PR Chauhan) , 1193 (Battle of Chandawar with Gahadhwala Ruler Jaychanda)

DELHI SULTANATE

Mamluk Dynasty 1206-90 —> Qutbuddin Aibak , Iltutmish , Balban

Khalji Dynasty 1290-1320

Tughlaq Dynasty 1320-1414

Sayyids Dynasty 1414-51

Lodi Dynasty 1451-1526

Muslim Sultans & Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god BUT Persian court chronicles described the Sultan as the “Shadow of God”. An inscription in the Delhi mosque explained that God chose Alauddin as a king because he had the qualities of Moses and Solomon , the great law-givers of the past. The greatest law-giver and architect was God Himself. He created the world out of chaos and introduced order and symmetry.

Qutbuddin Aibak :

He was a slave of Muhammad Ghori, who made him the Governor of his Indian possessions.
He set up his military headquarters at Indraprastha, near Delhi.
He raised a standing army and established his hold over north India even during the life time of Ghori.
After the death of Ghori in 1206, Aibak declared his independence.
He severed all connections with the kingdom of Ghori and thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate.
He assumed the title Sultan and made Lahore his capital. His rule lasted for a short period of four years.
Muslim writers call Aibak Lakh Baksh or giver of lakhs because he gave liberal donations to them.
Aibak patronized the great scholar Hasan Nizami.
He also started the construction of Qutub Minar after the name of a famous Sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakthiyar. It was later completed by Iltutmish.
Aibak died suddenly while playing chaugan (horse polo) in 1210. He was succeeded by his son Aram Baksh, who was replaced by Iltutmish after eight months.

In India, Islamic rulers Qutb-ud-din Aibak imposed jizya on non-Muslims first time which was called called kharaj-o-jizya.

Iltutmish 1211-36 :

He was 1st turk sultan who issued pure arabise coins know as Silver Tanka & Copper Jeetal.
Organised Iqta system
Set up official nobility of slaves known as Chahalgani/Chalisa.
Patronised " Minhas-us-Siraj " who authored 'Tabaqat-i-Nasiri'.

Razia Sultana 1236-40 : Daughter of Iltutmish & First and Only Muslim Lady who ever ruled over India.

Gyassuddin Balban 1266-87 :

Broke the power of Chalisa
set up Military Dept. Diwan-i-Arz.
took title as 'Zil-i-Ilahi'(shadow of God)
Introduced Sijda(salutation) and Paibos(kissing feet)

Khalji Dynasty 1290-1320

Alauddin Khalji

He maintained a large permanent standing army and paid them in cash from the royal treasury.
He introduced the system of dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya (descriptive list of soldiers) in order to ensure maximum efficiency, a strict review of army from time to time was carried out.
The introduction of paying salaries in cash to the soldiers led to price regulations popularly called as Market Reforms.

Alauddin Khalji established 4 separate markets in Delhi, one for grain; another for cloth, sugar, dried fruits, butter and oil; a third for horses, slaves and cattle; and a fourth for miscellaneous commodities.
Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi.. The supply of grain was ensured by holding stocks in government store-houses. Regulations were issued to fix the price of all commodities.
Every merchant was registered under the Market department. There were secret agents called Munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the functioning of these markets.
Violation of regulations was severely punished. Harsh punishment was given if any shopkeeper charged a higher price, or tried to cheat by using false weights and measures. Even during the famine the same price was maintained .

Land reforms : Alauddin Khalji took important steps in the land revenue administration.

He was the first Sultan of Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land. Even the big landlords could not escape from paying land tax.
Land revenue was collected in cash in order to enable the Sultan to pay the soldiers in cash.
His land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar.

Tughlaq Dynasty 1320-1414

Muhammad bin Tughlaq :

In 1329-30, He introduced a token copper currency in place of silver, but banned it later and promised to exchange silver coins for these copper coins because Goldsmiths began to forge the token coins on a large scale.
According the Barani, After exchange, the heap of copper coins remained lying on roadside in Tughlaqabad.
He sent Ibn Battuta as Ambassador to China in 1342 for Diplomatic Mission. Ibn Battuta's "RIHLA" gives detailed account about Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign.

Firoz Tughlaq : Reign of Firoz Tughlaq was more notable for his administration.

He strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in running the administration.
He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties.
Thus the Iqta system was not only revived but also it was made hereditary.
As per the Islamic law he levied the taxes. Jiziya was strictly imposed on non-Muslims.
He was the first Sultan to impose irrigation tax But at the same time he dug irrigation canals and wells. The longest canal was about 200 kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi. Another canal was between Yamuna and Hissar.
The special tax on 28 items was abolished by him since they were against the Islamic law.
He also developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were employed.
About 300 new towns were built during his reign. The famous among them was Firozabad near Red Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah Kotla.
Old monuments like Jama Masjid and Qutub-Minar were also repaired.
Firoz was guided by the ulemas, he was intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis.
He treated Hindus as second grade citizens and imposed Jiziya.
In this respect he was the precursor of Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb.
Also he increased the number of slaves by capturing the defeated soldiers and young persons.
A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created to take care of orphans and widows. Free hospitals and marriage bureaus for poor Muslims were also established.

JAUNPUR (UP) :

Jaunpur historically known as Sheeraz-e-Hind having its historical dates from 1359, when the city was founded by the Sultan of Delhi Feroz Shah Tughlaq and named in memory of his cousin, Muhammad bin Tughluq, whose given name was Jauna Khan.
In 1388, Feroz Shah Tughlaq appointed Malik Sarwar, an eunuch, who is notorious for having been the lover of Feroz Shah Tughlaq's daughter, as the governor of the region.
The Sultanate was in disarray because of factional fighting for power, and in 1393 Malik Sarwar declared independence. He and his adopted son Mubarak Shah founded what came to be known as the Sharqi dynasty (dynasty of the East).
During the Sharqi period the Jaunpur Sultanate was a strong military power in Northern India, and on several occasions threatened the Delhi Sultanate.
The Jaunpur Sultanate attained its greatest height under the younger brother of Mubarak Shah, who ruled as Shams-ud-din Ibrahim Shah (ruled 1402-1440). To the east, his kingdom extended to Bihar, and to the west, to Kanauj; he even marched on Delhi at one point.
Under the aegis of a Muslim holy man named Qutb al-Alam, he threatened the Sultanate of Bengal under Raja Ganesha.
During the reign of Husain Shah (1456–76), the Jaunpur army was perhaps the biggest in India, and Husain decided to attempt a conquest of Delhi. However, he was defeated on three successive attempts by Bahlul Khan Lodi.
It is a dominant trend in modern historiography of the period that this defeat was a cause of a large number of eunuchs in the military ranks.
Finally, under Sikandar Lodi, the Delhi Sultante was able to reconquer Jaunpur in 1493, bringing that sultanate to an end.
Hence Jaunpur's independence came to an end in 1480, when the city was conquered by Sikander Lodhi, the Sultan of Delhi.
The Sharqi kings(since 1394 to 1483) attempted for several years to retake the city, but ultimately failed.
Husain Shah (1458–1483) was last ruler of Jaunpur.
Religious : The Jaunpur Sultanate was a major centre of Urdu and Sufi knowledge and culture. The Sharqi dynasty was known for its excellent communal relations between Muslims and Hindus, perhaps stemming from the fact that the Sharqis themselves were originally indigenous converts to Islam, as opposed to descendants of Persians or Afghans.
Although many of the Sharqi monuments were destroyed when the Lodis took the city, several important mosques remain, most notably the Atala Masjid, Jama Masjid (now known as the Bari (big mosque) Masjid) and the Lal Darwaza Masjid.
The Jaunpur mosques display a unique architectural style, combining traditional Hindu and Muslim motifs with purely original elements.
The old bridge over the Gomti River in Jaunpur dates from 1564, the era of the Mughal Emperor Akbar.
The Jaunpur Qila, a fortress from the Tughlaq era, also remains in good form.
Jaunpur district was annexed into British India based on the Permanent settlement of 1779, and thus was subject to the Zamindari system of land revenue collection.
During the Revolt of 1857 the Sikh troops in Jaunpur joined the Indian rebels. The district was eventually reconquered for the British by Gurkha troops from Nepal. Jaunpur then became a district administrative centre.
Tilak Dhari College founded in 1914 is one of the premier institutions of not only Uttar Pradesh but also in India.
Currently It has 2 Lok Sabha and 9 Vidhan Sabha constituencies. It have Hindu 88% & Muslim 12%.
Gomti, Sai, Varuna, Pili, and Basuhi are 5 rivers which make its land fertile

NOTE : Rasalat — Religious , Ariz — Military , Insha — Communication

Diwani Rasalat

It was the department of religious affairs, was headed by chief Sadr.
Grants were made by this department for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs and madrasas.
The head of the judicial department was the chief Qazi.
Other judges or Qazis were appointed in various parts of the Sultanate.
Muslim personal law or sharia was followed in civil matters.
The Hindus were governed by their own personal law and their cases were dispensed by the village panchayats.
The criminal law was based on the rules and regulations made by the Sultans.
The department of correspondence was called Diwani Insha which dealt all the correspondence between the ruler and the officials.

Administration

The Sultan was assisted by a number of departments and officials in his administration.
The post of Naib was the most powerful one who practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan and exercised general control over all the departments.
Next to him was the Wazir who was heading the finance department called Diwani Wizarat.
The military department was called Diwani Ariz headed by Ariz-i-mumalik who was responsible for recruiting the soldiers and administering the military department. He was NOT the commander-in-chief of the army. The Sultan himself was the commander-in-chief of the army.
The military department was first set up by Balban and it was further improved by Alauddin Khalji under whom the strength of the army crossed three lakh soldiers. Alauddin introduced the system of branding of the horses (Dagh) and payment of salary in cash. Cavalry was given importance under the Delhi Sultanate.

Social status

During the Sultanate period, the Muslim society remained divided into several ethnic and racial groups.
The Turks, Iranians, Afghans and Indian Muslims developed exclusively and there were NO intermarriages between these groups.
Hindu converts from lower castes were also NOT given equal respect.
The Muslim nobles occupied high offices and very rarely the Hindu nobles were given high position in the government.
The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected people for which they were forced to pay a tax called JIZIYA.
In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of land tax.
Firoz Tughlaq separated it from the land revenue and collected JIZIYA as a separate tax.
Sometimes Brahmins were exempted from paying Jiziya.

ARCHITECTURE :

The art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period was distinct from the Indian style.
The Turks introduced arches, domes, lofty towers or minarets and decorations using the Arabic script.
They used the skill of the Indian stone cutters & also added colour to their buildings by using marbles, red and yellow sand stones.
The buildings of the Tughlaq period were constructed by combining arch and dome. They also used the cheaper and easily available grey colour stones.
The palace complex called Tughlaqabad with its beautiful lake was built during the period of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq.
Ghiyas ud-din Tughiaq is the 1st Sultan to be credited with digging canals for the irrigation and agriculture. He adopted a balanced policy known as Rasm-i-Miyana.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the tomb of Ghyasuddin on a high platform. The Kotla fort at Delhi was the creation of Firoz Tughlaq. The Lodi garden in Delhi was the example for the architecture of the Lodis.

Department	Head (Founded by)
Diwan-i-Wizarat (Department of Finance)	Wazir
Diwan-i-Ariz (Military Department)	Ariz-i-Mumalik
Diwan-i-Insha (Department of Correspondent	Dabir-i-Mumalik
Diwan-i-Risaiat (Department of Appeals)	Dabir-i-Mulq
Diwan-i-Mustakharaj (Department of Arrears)	(Founded by Alauddin khilji)
Diwan-i-Riyasat (Department of Commerce)	Rais-i-Mumalik (Founded by Alauddin khilji)
Diwan-i-Kohi (Department of Agriculture)	(Founded by Md-bin-Tughlaq)
Diwan-i-Bandgan (Department of Slaves)	(Founded by Firoz Tughlaq)
Diwan-i-Khairat (Department of Charity)	(Founded by Firoz Tugulaq)
Diwan-i-Isthiaq (Department of Pensions)	(Founded by Firoz Tughloq)

Amir Khusrau 1252-1325 :

New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during this period.
Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as Ghora and Sanam.
He evolved a new style of light music known as Qawalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian systems.
The invention of Sitar was also attributed to him.
Amir Khusrau was the famous Persian writer wrote a number of poems , experimented with several poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaqi-Hind or the Indian style.
He also wrote some Hindi verses.
Amir Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin’s conquests.
His famous work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.
The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz Tughlaq.
Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period.
Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of a great musical work called Man Kautuhal.

Agriculture :

Takkavi loans were a measure of reprieve taken after few suppressing moves of Tughlaq in form of loans for cultivation.
In order to overcome financial difficulties in his empire, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land revenue on the farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and Yamuna rivers).
It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers. A severe famine was also ravaging that region at that time. It had resulted in a serious peasant revolts. The revolts were crushed.
However, the Sultan realized later that adequate relief measures and the promotion of agriculture were the real solution to the problem.
He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seed and to extend agriculture.

MUGHAL PERIOD : 1526 - 1857

Capitals :

Agra 1526-1540, 1555-1570,
Fatehpur Sikri 1570-1585
Lahore 1585-1599
Delhi 1599-1613
Ajmer 1613-1616
Agra 1616-1648
Delhi 1648-1858;

Babur (Zahir) 1526 – 1530
Humayun (Nasir) 1530 – 1540 ——> For 15 yrs SherShah Suri <—— 1555 – 1556 Humayun back
Akbar (Jalal) 1556 – 1605
Jahangir (Saleem) 1605 – 1627
Shahryar (de facto) 1627 – 1628
Shah Jahan (Khurram) 1628 – 1658
Aurangzeb (Alamgir) 1658 – 1707
Muhammad Azam Shah (titular) 1707
Bahadur Shah I 1707 – 1712
Jahandar Shah 1712 – 1713
Farrukhsiyar 1713 – 1719
Rafi ud-Darajat 1719
Shah Jahan II 1719
Muhammad Shah 1719 – 1748
Ahmad Shah Bahadur 1748 – 1754
Alamgir II 1754 – 1759
Shah Jahan III (titular) 1759 – 1760
Shah Alam II 1760 – 1806
Jahan Shah IV (titular) 1788
Akbar II 1806 – 1837
Bahadur Shah II 1837 – 1857

Two technological and stylistic developments are noticeable from the 12th century. The weight of the superstructure above the doors and windows was sometimes carried by arches. This architectural form was called “arcuate”.
Limestone cement was increasingly used in construction. This was very high quality cement, which, when mixed with stone chips hardened into concrete. This made construction of large structures easier and faster.

distinctive features of Indo-Islamic architecture were the

(a) dome; (b) lofty towers or minarets; (c) arch; and (d) the vault.

Famous Mughal gardens like the Shalimar Bagh of Lahore (now in Pakistan) and the Nishat Bagh are important elements of our cultural heritage. The Lahore garden has three stages. But a better example can be seen in India at Pinjore Garden situated on the Chandigarh-Kalka road where we have a seven-stage garden. This impressed the British so much that they created a three-stage garden in the Vice-Regal Lodge (now the Rashtrapati Bhawan) in New Delhi, It was on these very lines that the famous Vrindavan Garden in Mysore were built in the twentieth century.

——> Pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work on marble became very popular in the days of Shah Jahan , are available in the Red Fort in Delhi and the Taj Mahal at Agra.

Arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often combined with other elements. It was extensively used in Indo-Islamic architecture.

Mughals did not believe in the rule of primogeniture(supremacy of first born child) , where the eldest son inherited his father’s estate. Instead they followed the Mughal and Timurid custom of coparcenary(participator) inheritance, or a division of the inheritance amongst all the sons.

The term mansabdar refers to an individual who holds a mansab, meaning a position or rank. It was a grading system used by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military responsibilities.
Rank and salary were determined by a numerical value called ZAT. The higher the zat, the more prestigious was the noble’s position in court and the larger his salary.
The mansabdar’s military responsibilities required him to maintain a specified number of sawar or cavalrymen.
The mansabdar brought his cavalrymen for review, got them registered, their horses branded and then received money to pay them as salary.
Mansabdars received their salaries as revenue assignments called JAGIRS which were somewhat like Iqtas.
But unlike Muqtis, most mansabdars did not actually reside in or administer their Jagirs. They only had rights to the revenue of their assignments which was collected for them by their servants while the mansabdars themselves served in some other part of the country.

JAGIRS : Lands given for pay to service

Iqtas : assignment of lands to individual by govt

Muqti : recipient of Iqta

Humayun Nama :

An interesting book giving us a glimpse into the domestic world of the Mughals written by Gulbadan Begum the daughter of Babur, Humayun’s sister and Akbar’s aunt.
Gulbadan could write fluently in Turkish and Persian. When Akbar commissioned Abu’l Fazl to write a history of his reign, he requested his aunt to record her memoirs of earlier times under Babur and Humayun, for Abu’l Fazl to draw upon.
What Gulbadan wrote was no eulogy( speech of praise ) of the Mughal emperors Rather she described in great detail the conflicts and tensions among the princes and kings and the important mediating role elderly women of the family played in resolving some of these conflicts.

Sher Shah Suri :

remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions.
He employed Hindus in important offices , was also a patron of art and architecture.
He built a new city on the banks of the river Yamuna near Delhi. Now the old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque is alone surviving.
He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of Indian architecture.
Sher Shah also patronized the learned men.
Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign.

whole Empire -----> 47 Sarkars -----> Paraganas

At Sarkar Level

Shiqdar-i-shiqadaran: maintain law and order
Munshife-i-munshifan: supervise the revenue collection

At Paragana Level

Shikdar: maintain law and order.
Amin: collect revenue.
Munsif: look after judicial matters.

→ Peasants had to pay jaribana (survey charge) and muhasilana (tax collection charge)

Four main central departments

Diwan-i-wijarat (Finance Department);
Diwan-i-arz (Military Department);
Diwan-i-insha (Royal Secretariat);
Diwan-i-Rasalat (Department for religious and foreign affairs);

Ariz-i-mamalik headed the department named -Diwan-i-ariz
Dabir headed the department named -Diwan-i-insha
Qazi headed the department named - Diwani-Kaza.

Farmers of Mughal Period :

The term which Indo-Persian sources of the Mughal period most frequently used to denote a peasant was raiyat (plural, riaya) or muzarian. In addition, we also encounter the terms kisan or asami.
Sources of the 17th century refer to two kinds of peasants – khud-kashta and pahi-kashta.
khud-kashta were residents of the village in which they held their lands. pahi-kashta were non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village, but cultivated lands elsewhere on a contractual basis.
People became pahi-kashta either out of choice – for example, when terms of revenue in a distant village were more favourable – or out of compulsion – for example, forced by economic distress after a famine.

Village Panchayat of Mughal Period :

Village panchayat was an assembly of elders, usually important people of the village with hereditary rights over their property.
In mixed-caste villages, the panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body.
An oligarchy(small group of people having control of all), the panchayat represented various castes and communities in the village, though the village menial-cum-agricultural worker was unlikely to be represented there.
The decisions made by these panchayats were binding on the members.
The panchayat was headed by a headman known as Muqaddam or Mandal.
The panchayat had function to ensure that caste boundaries among the various communities inhabiting the village were upheld.

Zamindars of Mughal Period :

Zamindars who were landed proprietors who also enjoyed certain social and economic privileges by virtue of their superior status in rural society.
Caste was one factor that accounted for the elevated status of zamindars; Also they performed certain services (khidmat) for the state.
The zamindars held extensive personal lands termed Milkiyat, meaning property which were cultivated for the private use of zamindars, often with the help of hired or servile labour.
The zamindars could sell, bequeath or mortgage these lands at will.
Although Zamindars were an exploitative class, their relationship with the peasantry had an element of reciprocity, paternalism and patronage.
Two aspects reinforce this view.

First, the Bhakti saints, who eloquently(fluent or persuasive manner) condemned caste-based and other forms of oppression, did NOT portray the zamindars (or, interestingly, the moneylender) as exploiters or oppressors of the peasantry. Usually it was the revenue official of the state who was the object of their ire.

Second, in a large number of agrarian uprisings which erupted in north India in the 17th century, zamindars often received the support of the peasantry in their struggle against the state.

Revenue of Mughal Period :

The Mughal state tried to first acquire specific information about the extent of the agricultural lands in the empire and what these lands produced before fixing the burden of taxes on people.
The land revenue arrangements consisted of two stages – first, assessment and then actual collection.
The Jama was the amount assessed, as opposed to Hasil, the amount collected.
In his list of duties of the Amil-Guzar or revenue collector, Akbar decreed that while he should strive to make cultivators pay in cash, the option of payment in kind was also to be kept open.
While fixing revenue, the attempt of the state was to maximize its claims.
The scope of actually realizing these claims was, however, sometimes thwarted by local conditions.
Amin was an official responsible for ensuring that imperial regulations were carried out in the provinces.

Land Revenue System of Akbar

There was no Mughal land revenue system before Akbar & A proper land revenue system was founded by Akbar which was based on what Sher shah Suri implemented during his short tenure.
Akbar in land revenue system can be mainly divided into three heads as follows:

Standardization of measurement of land : divided his empire into 15 Subahs , Ilahi Gaj as a standardization of measurement unit, fixing definite measurement to Bigha of land. A Bigha was made of 3600 Ilahi Gaj, Several Bighas made a Mahal. Several Mahals were grouped into Dasturs.
Ascertaining the produce per Bigha of Land : Akbar followed the system as Shershah Suri had already divided land into 4 different categories.

Polaj: The ideal and best type of land throughout the empire, was cultivated always and was never allowed to lie fallow.
Parati or Parauti : the land kept out of cultivation temporarily in order to recoup its lost fertility.
Chachar : a kind of land allowed to lie fallow for 3 or 4 years and then resumed under cultivation.
Banjar : the worst kind of land that was left out of cultivation for 5 years or upwards.

Fixation of state’s share in that produce

The best lands viz. Polaj and Parauti were subdivided into three categories viz. good, middle and bad.
Average produce of these three categories, called Mahsul was taken as a normal produce per Bigha.
One third of this Mahsul (average produce) was fixed as state’s share.
The Parauti land also was liable to pay the Polaj rate (one third of Mahsul) when cultivated.
Chachar land was allowed to pay a concessional rate until it was cultivated again to be liable to pay the Polaj rate.
Banjar lands were also not totally neglected.
Further, the peasants were given option to pay either in cash or kind, whichever was convenient to them.

Fixing Rate of Assessment : The state’s share was fixed one-third of the produce under the schedule (Dastur-i-amal) to be paid in cash which was attached with several issues. Hence Akbar ordered that the settlement should be concluded for past 10 years. An aggregate of the rate of revenues from 1570 to 1579 was made and a decennial average was fixed as demand of the revenue. This brought certainty to collections and alleviated the problem of peasants to great extent. This was the so called Dahsala (10 yrs ) system or Zabti System, that was implemented by Raja Todarmal. This remained a standard system of revenue assessment during the greater part of the Mughal empire. During Shahjahan’s era, it was introduced in the Deccan by Murshid Quli khan. After land revenue had been assessed in kind, it was converted into cash on the basis of dastur-ul-amal (price schedules).

Note : During British Era, the land was divided on the basis of natural or artificial qualities of soil in clay, loam, irrigated, unirrigated and so on. The basis of land classification by Akbar was on the continuity or discontinuity of the cultivation. Akbar’s Vazirs had not taken account the soil qualities for ascertaining the produce.

LITERATURE :

- Babur whose mother-tongue was Turkish wrote his ‘Tuzak-i-Baburi’ (Memories of Babur) in Turki. During the reign of Akbar, it was translated into Persian.
- During Humayun time, his sister Gulabadan Begum wrote ‘Humayunnama’. Humayun also constructed a big library. In fact his death took place on account of a fall from the staircase of his library.

During Akbar reign,

Abul Fazal wrote ‘Akbarnama’ and ‘Ain-i-Akbari.
Badauni, a historian wrote, ‘Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh’.
An historian Nizam-ud-Din wrote ‘Tabaqat-i-Akbari’ the Arthava Veda, the Ramayana and the Mahabharat.
Tarikh-i-Akbari was written in persian by Arif Qandahari and is Important source of Akbar's reign.
Sur, Das, a blind band of Agra wrote Sursagar’ in Brij Bhasha.
Sant Tulsi Das produced the immortal Ramcharitmanas’ in Awadhi, the eastern Hindi dialect.
The period saw the production of a dictionary of Persian-Sanskrit, named Parsi Parkash’.
Guru Granth Sahib’, the most sacred book of the Sikhs was compiled during this period.
Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote famous Padmavat.

During Jahangir, He himself wrote his autobiography ‘Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri’.

Other important literary and historical works were ‘lqbalanam-i-Jahangir and ‘Masir-i-Jahangir’.

During Shah Jahan’s reign, His courtier Abul Hamid Lahori wrote ‘Padshanama’.

Chandar Bhan Brahman – a munshi who served in the Mughal court from the 1630s to the 1660s. He wrote book "Chahar Chaman" in Parsi mentions Shah Jahan’s concern, his vigil over his convalescing daughter Jahanara and the efforts the court took to ensure the best medical care for her.

Prince Dara Shikoh was a great scholar of Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit. On account of his patronage, the ‘Upanishads’, the Bhagavad-Gita’, the ‘Yoga Vashista’ and the ‘Ramayana’ were translated in Persian.

During Aurangzeb

‘Fatwa-i-Alamgiri’—a digest of Muslim law written in Arabic created at the insistence of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (who was also known as Alamgir).
‘Muntakhab-ul ‘ -- a famous history by Khafi Khan
‘Nuskho-i- Dilkusha’ or ‘Tarikh-i- Dilkusha’ by Bhimsen Saxena.

Alamgirnamah by Mirza Muhammad Kazim

Khulasat-ut-Tawa-rikh by Sujan Rai Khatri

Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri by IshwarDas Nagar.

Ishwardas Nagar's Fatuhat-i-AIamgiri is an important source of information for various developments during the reign of Aurangzeb.

AKBAR

Akbar rose to fame in the pages of history due to his religious policy. Various factors were responsible for his religious ideas.
The most important among them were his early contacts with the sufi saints, the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak and his(Shaikh Mubarak’s) two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl – and his ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
In the beginning of his life, Akbar was a pious Muslim. Soon after marrying JodhBai of Amber, he abolished the pilgrim tax and in 1562, he abolished Jiziya. He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods. Later, he became a skeptical (doubtful) Muslim.
In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital Fatepur Sikri.
Akbar invited learned scholars from ALL RELIGIONS like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism. He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” (अचूकता हुक्मनामा) by which he asserted his religious powers.
In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din-e-Ilahi or Divine Faith. It believes in one God.
It contained good points of all religions. Its basis was rational, upholds no dogma.
It was aimed at bridging the gulf that separated different religions.
With these points we can say that it resembled Sufism.
However, his new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his death. Even during his life time, it had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith.

CONSTRUCTIONS during AKBAR :

Akbar also built a palace cum-fort complex at Fatepur Sikri (City of Victory), 36 kilometres from Agra.
Many buildings in Gujarati and Bengali styles are found in this complex. Gujarati style buildings were probably built for his Rajput wives.
The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called Buland Darwaza or the Lofty Gate. The height of the gateway is 176 feet. It was built to commemorate Akbar’s victory over Gujarat.
Other important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Jodh Bai’s palace and PanchMahal with five storeys.

JAHANGIR

He Introduced the “duaspa-sihaspa” (23h) rank, literally meaning troopers having 2 or 3 horses; and hence related to the sawar rank. This rank doubled the ordinary sawar rank, and hence doubled the obligation, and the previleges that went with it.

SHAHJAHAN

AURANGAZEB ( b1618 -r1658- d1707 )

He was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his personal life & his ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.
He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer called Muhtasib.
Drinking was prohibited.
Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court.
He discontinued the practice of
He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah Though He didn’t discontinued the practice of Jarokhadarshan.
Royal astronomers and astrologers were also dismissed from service.
Initially He banned the construction of new Hindu temples and repair of old temples. Then he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples. The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins.
In 1679, he reimposed Jiziya and pilgrim tax
He was also NOT tolerant of other Muslim sects. The celebration of Muharram was stopped.
His invasions against the Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith
He was also against the Sikhs and he executed 9th Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur. This had resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into a warring community.
His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs into the enemies of Mughal empire.
It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar.
Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal empire.

REVOLTS during Aurangzeb's Reign :

Jats Rebellion : In 1669-70, the Jats of Mathura region rose under the leadership of a local Zamindar Gokala, Rajaram, Churamani.

Bundela Rebellion : In 1671 by leaders Champat rai , Chhatrasal for political and social causes.

Satnami Rebellion : In 1672, the 4000 Hindus in today’s Haryana region who called themselves Satnamis Sector got rebellious in the area around Delhi. They were led by one Birbhan, who took over the administration of the area around modern Narnaul in Haryana.

Sikh Rebellion : In 1675 , by Guru Teg bahadur Singh and Guru Gobind Singh due to religious reasons.

Rajput (marwar) : 1678

AFTER AURANGAZEB

Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangazeb.
The Mughal court became the scene of factions among the nobles.
The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739. The causes for the downfall of the Mughal Empire were varied.

To some extent, the religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb contributed to its decline.
The weak successors and demoralization of the Mughal army also paved the way for it. The vastness of the empire became unwieldy.
The financial difficulties due to continuous wars led to the decline.
The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to settle in India.
Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Mughal state.

Thus the decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire was due to the combination of political, social and economic factors.

Sikh Guru	Year	Work
Guru Nanak	1469-1569	Nanak Panth
Guru Angad	1539-1552	Gurumukhi Script for Punjabi Language
Guru Amardas	1552-1574	Spiritual empire in 22 parts - *Manjis*
Guru Ramdas	1575-1581	City of Amritsar, Harmindar Sahib
Guru Arjun Dev	1581-1606	Compiled Adigranth Founded City Taran & Kartarpur executed by Jahangir
Guru Har Govind Rai	1606-1645	Sikhs into Warrior class fortified Amritsar by Lohgarh Fort built Akal Takht Title of Padshah City Kiratpur in Kashmir
Guru Har Rai	1645-1661	met with Darashikoh
Guru Har Kishan	1661-1664	His Elder Bro RamRai built a separate seat of Guru at Dehradun
Guru Teg Bahadur	1664-1675	Executed by Aurangzeb Sisganj Gurudwara
Guru Gobind Singh	1675-1708	Community of Warriors — Khalsa in 1699 Summoned the assembly of Sikhs at Anandpur Sahib
Guru Granth Sahib	1708- Eternity	It is Adigranth added the banis of Guru Tegh Bahadur Eternal Guru of Sikh

SHIVAJI (1627-1680)

He was First Maratha King.
As great ADMINISTRATOR, He laid the foundations of a sound system of administration.
Ashtapradhan : was a Council of eight ministers who acted as advisers to the Maratha king in matters relating to the state.
The King was the pivot of the government & was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan. However, each minister was directly responsible to Shivaji.

Peshwa – Finance & general administration Later he became the Prime Minister & was one of the functionary of the state.
Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati – Military commander, A honorary post
Amatya – Accountant General
Waqenavis – Intelligence, posts and household affairs
Sachiv – Correspondence
Sumanta – Master of ceremonies
Nyayadish – Justice
Panditarao – Charities & religious administration

Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on the practices of the Deccan sultanates. For example, Peshwa was the Persian title.

He was a man of MILITARY GENIUS and his army was well organized.
The regular army consisted of about 30000 to 40000 cavalry supervised by Havaildars. They were given fixed salaries.
There were 2 divisions in the Maratha CAVALRY (on horse army) -

Bargirs — equipped and paid by the state
Silahdars — maintained by the nobles

In the infantry (by foot army), the Mavli foot soldiers played an important role.
Shivaji also maintained a NAVY EXPERT.
The forts played an important role in the military operations of the Marathas.
By the end of his reign, Shivaji had about 240 forts. Each fort was put under the charge of 3 officers of equal rank as a precaution against treachery.
Shivaji was really a constructive genius and nation-builder. His rise from jagirdar to Chatrapathi was spectacular.
He unified the Marathas and remained a great enemy of the Mughal empire. He was a daring soldier and a brilliant administrator.

REVENUE System of Shivaji :

Revenue system of Shivaji was based on that of Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar.
Lands were measured by using the measuring rod called Kathi.
Lands were also classified into 3 categories – paddy fields, garden lands and hilly tracks.
He reduced the powers of the existing deshmuks and kulkarnis.
He appointed his own revenue officials called Karkuns.
Chauth & sardeshmukhi were the taxes collected by Marathas but NOT in the Maratha kingdom but in the neighbouring territories of the Mughal empire or Deccan sultanates..
Chauth was one fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas in order to avoid the Maratha raids.
Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of ten percent on those lands which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights.

Maratha Empire

Sardeshmukhi : was a tax equivalent to one- tenth of the land revenue levied by the Marathas on all territories.
Chauth system : was one-quarter of the land revenue paid to the government, which was collected as a tax by the Marathas, from people living outside the Maratha kingdom in return for which they were promised security against plunder and raid of their territory by Marathas.

A Saranjam is grant of land (initially non-hereditary) for maintenance of troops or for military service found among the Maratha community in Maharashtra and the former Maratha occupied regions of India, including territories in present-day Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. The grant was bestowed by a king or regional ruler of a princely state.

Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh ( 3 Nov b1688 – r 1699 - d 1743 ) :

The Hindu Rajput ruler of the kingdom of Amber (later called Jaipur) , born at Amber, the capital of the Kachwahas.
He became ruler of Amber at the age of 11 after his father Maharaja Bishan Singh died on 31 December 1699.
He was given title of Sawai by the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb in the year 1699, who had summoned (request or demand for present) him to Delhi, impressed by his wit ( intelligence ).
Later he proved to be Sawai also in warfare.
On 21 April 1721, the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah bestowed(award or grant) upon him the title of Saramad-i-Rajaha-i-Hind and on 2 June 1723, the emperor further bestowed him the titles of Raj Rajeshvar, Shri shantanu ji and Maharaja Sawai.
"Sawai" means one and a quarter times superior to his contemporaries. These titles adorn his descendants even to this date.
He had a great interest in mathematics, architecture and astronomy.
It was at Jai Singh’s insistence that the hated jaziya tax, imposed on the Hindu population by Aurangzeb (1679), was finally abolished by the Emperor Muhammad Shah in 1720.
In 1728 Jai Singh prevailed on him to also withdraw the pilgrimage tax on Hindus at Gaya.
It is surprising that in the midst of local wars, foreign invasions, and consequent turmoil, Sawai Jai Singh found time and energy to build astronomical observatories.
Five observatories JANTAR MANTAR were built at Delhi, Mathura (in his Agra province), Benares, Ujjain (capital of his Malwa province), and his own capital of Jaipur. His astronomical observations were remarkably accurate.
These days Jai Singh's observatories aka JANTAR MANTAR at Jaipur, Varanasi, and Ujjain are functional. Only the one at Delhi is not functional and the one at Mathura disappeared a long time ago
Jai Singh also translated works by people like John Napier.

1857 Revolts :

Place	Leaders
Delhi	Bahadur Shah II
Gwalior	Nana Saheb (aka Dhundhu Pant) Commander Tantya Tope (aka Ramchandra Pandurang)
Jhansi	Rani Laxmibai
Bihar Lucknow	Kuwar Singh Begum Hajrat Mahal
Bareilly	Khan Bahadur Khan
Faizabad	Ahmadullah
Fatehpur	Azimullah Khan
Mathura	Devi Singh
Meerut	Kadam Singh

Various Movements of 19th and 20th Century

Name of the movement	Main cause(s)	Course of movement & consequences
Sanyasi Rebellion Area: Bengal Year: 1763-1800	Displaced peasants, Demobilized Soldiers, disposed Zamindars, Participated led By Sanyasis.	It was made famous by Bankim Chandra Chaterjee in his novel: Anandmath
Revolt of Kattambomman Area: Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu Year: 1792-99 Leader: Veerapandya Kattabomman (Ruler of panchalakurichi)	Attempts of the British to force Katabomman to accept their suzerainty and his refusal	Defiance of the British by Kattabomman for 7 years; his final capture and execution by the British (1779); annexation of his territory by the British (1779).
Rebellion of the Paiks Area: Orissa Year: 1804-06Leader: First under the Raja of the Khurda and later under jagabandhu	British Occupation of Orissa (1803); resentment of the paiks (a militia class occupying rent free lands under the zamindars) against British land and land revenue policies	Unsuccessful attempt of the Raja of Khurd to organize a rebellion with the help of the Paiks, and confiscation of his territory by the British (1804) continuous unrest among the Paiks between 1804 & 1806; rise of the Paiks under Jagabandhu and their occupation of Puri after defeating the British force (1807); final suppression of the movement by force and conciliatory measures by British.
Revolt of Velu Thampi Area: Travancore Year: 1805-09 Leader: Velu Thambi (Dewan of Travancore)	Financial burden imposed on the state by the British through the subsidiary system; the high handedness of the British Resident there; and British demand for the removal of Dewan.	Beginning of war between the two sides (December 1805); fall of Trivendrum (Capital of Travancore) to the British (February 1809); death of Velu Thampi in forest due to serious injuries.
Revolt of Rao Bharmal Area: Cutch and Kathiawar in Gujrat Year: 1861-19 Leader: Rao Bharmal (Rule off Cutch)	Anti-British feeling due to British expansionist policy and their interference in internal affairs of Cutch.	Final defeat and deposal of Rao Bharmal; imposition of Subsidary treaty on Cutch.
Revolt of Ramosis Area: Poona Year: 1822-29 Leader: Chittur Singh and Umaji	British Annexation of Peshwa’s terntory(1818), resulting in large scale unemployment among Ramosis (under the Peshwa, they served in inferior ranks of police)	Revolt of the Ramosis under Chittur Singh (1822-24); their revolt under (Umaji (1822-24); establishment of peace by the British by pardoning all the crimes of the Ramosis and also by granting them lands and recruiting them as hill police.
Kittur Rising Area: Kittur (near dharwar in Karnataka) Year: 1824-29 Leader: Channamma and Rayappa	Death of Shivalinga Rudra Desai (chief) of Kittur (1824), leaving no male to recongnize the adopted issue; refusal of the British son as the Desai and assumption of administration of Kittur by British	Revoltt of Channamma (widow of late Desai) in 1824 and murder of English officers including Thackeray (Collecter of Dharwar); conquest of Kitttur and its annexation by the British revolt of the people of Kittur under Rayappa who declared independence and set up the adopted boy as the Desai (1829); capture and execution of rayappa by British, and death of Channamma in Dharwar prison.
Sambalpur Outbreaks Area: Sambalpur (Orissa) Year: 1827-40Leader: Surendra Sai	Frequent interference of British in the internal affairs of Sambalpur such as the issue of succession.	Death of Maharaja Sai (ruler) and outbreak of civil war; succession of Mohan Kumari (widow of the late Raja) with the support of the British and revolt of other claimants under Surendra Sai; final arrest and life imprisonment of Surendra Sai by British (1840).
Satara disturbances Area: Satara (Maharashtra) Year: 1840-41 Leader: Dhar Rao Pawar and Narsing Dattatreya Pettkar	Deposal and banishment of Pratap Singh, the popular ruler of Satara by the British	Revolt of the people of Satara under Dhar Rao in 1840; their revolt under Narsing and seizure of Badami in 1841; defeat and capture of Narsing by the British ( he was transported for life).
Bundela Revolt Area: Sagar & Damoh (Bundelkhand) Year: 1842 Leader: Madhukar Shah and Jawahir Singh	Resentment against British land revenue policy	Revolt of the Bundelas under Shah and Singh; murder of police officers and disruption of British administration; capture and execution of madhukar Shah and Singh by British.
Gadkari Rebellion Area: Kolhapur (Maharashtra) Year: 1844-45Leader: Not Available	Assumption of direct administration of Kolhapur by British and reforms of D.K. Pandit; resentment of the Gadkaris (a militia class who had earlier held revenue free lands in retum for their services to the ruler against the revenue reforms.	Revolt of the Gadkaris, followed by a popular revolt in the city of Kolhapur and all other parts of the state of Kolhapur; final suppression of the movement by the British.
Satavandi Revolt Area: Satavandi (Maharashtra) Year: 1839-45 Leader: Phond Savant-(leading noble) and Anna Sahib (heir apparent)	Deposal of Khen Savant (ruler of satavandi) and appointment of a British officer to administer to administer the state; resentment of the people against British system of administration.	Revolt of the nobles and their attempts to drive away the British; transformation of the revolt into a popular movement with the common people all over the state rising in arms against the British; proclamation of martial law and suppression of the movement by the British.
Raju Rebellion Area: Visakhapatnam (A.P.) Year: 1827-33 Leader: Birabhadra Raju	Birabhadra was dispossessed of his estate by the British in return for a small amount of pension	Revolt of Birabhadra and his defiance of British authority till he was captured
Palakonda Outbreak Area: Palakonda (Andhra Pardesh) Year: 1831-32 Leader: Zamindar of Palakonda	Attachment of the property of the zamindar for non-payment of revenue	Revolt of the zamindar; suppression of the revolt of forfeiture of Palakonda estate to the British
Gumsur Outbreak Area: Gumsur (Ganjam District) Year: 1835-37Leader: Dhananjaya Bhanja (Zamindar of Gumsur)	His failure to clear the arrears of revenue to the British	Revolt of zamindar; Appointment of Mr. Russel as the Commissioner; final suppression of the movement after larger scale military campaign in 1837
Parlakimedi Outbreak Area: Parlakimedi (Orissa) Year: 1829-35 Leader: Jagannath Gajapti Narayan Rao	Attachment of his zamindari for arrears by the British in 1827	Revolt of the zamindar, followed by a popular rising of the people; final suppression of the movement.
Movement of the Faraizis (In the later amalgamated with Wahabi movement) Area: East Bengal Year: 1838-62Leader: Shariatuallah and Muhammad Mushin (bêtter known as Dudhu Mian)	Degeneration of the Islamic society and loss of power to the British (Hence its aims were to remove abuses from Islamic society as well as to resore Muslim rule by expelling the British from India).	Foundation of the movement by Shariattullah of Faridpur, the movement under him was mainly religious in character, though he had declared British as enemies; his death in 1837; succession of Duhu Mian as the leader of the Movement, under him it became mainly political in nature; his success in mobilizing all the Muslim peasants of East Bengal against zamindars and indigo planters; his arrest and confinement in the Alipore jail.
Wahabi Movement Area: North India and Deccan Year: 1820-70 Leader: Saiyad Ahmad (Founder of the Movement)	Degeneration of Isalmic society and loss of power to the British (Aims – same as above)	Fight of the Wahabis against the British for 50 long years, and their final suppression by British after a series of trials in the 1860s.
Movement of Pagal panthis Area: Sherpur (East Bengal) Year: 1825-33 Leader: Karam Shah and Tipu	Resentment of the peasants against the operession of zamindars	Under Karam Shah (founder), It was mainly a religious movement, but under tipu (son of successor of Shah) it became a political movement against the oppressive zamindars and British, its final suppression by British after large scale military operations.
Kuka Movement Area: Punjab Year: 1854-72 Leader: Bhagat Jawahar Mal (founder)	Degeneration of Sikh religion and loss of sikh sovereignty	Though it started as a religious reform movement, it became a movement for the restoration of Sikh sovereignty after the annexation of Punjab by the British.
Indigo Revolt Area: Bengal Year: 1859-60Leader: Digambar Biswas & Bishnu Biswas	Forced cultivation off Indigo without any proper remuneration	Planters could not withstand thee resistance of ryots, indigo cultivation virtually wiped out, Govt. response restrained & not harsh
Pabna Movement Area: Bengal Year: 1873	Enhanced rent Beyond the legal Limit & prevention of tenants from acquiring the occupancy rights	Govt. accepted the Demands & promised to protect Tenants. It enacted Bengal tenancy Act 1885.
Deccan Riots Area: Poona & Ahmadnagar Year: 1874	Riots against the moneylenders	Govt. repressed the Movt. It enacted Deccan Agriculture Relief Act, 1879 to protect peasants against the money lenders
Peasant unrest Area: Punjab Year: 1901	Against the acquisition of the land by the money lenders	Punjab Land Alienation Act of 1902 enacted prohibiting transfer of the land from the peasants to the money lenders & mortgages for more 20 years.
Eka movement Area: Harrdoi, Bahraich, Barabanki, Sitapur (U.P.) Year: 1921-22Leader: Madari pasi	Enhanced rent Oppression of the contractors	Police managed to crush the movt
Mappila Mopalah Rebellion Area: Malabar, Kerala Year: 1922	Cultivators of Malabar revolted against the moneylenders & Zamindars against the lack of security of tenure, exorbitant rent and renewal fees.	It later assumed Communal colour Crushed by the Govt. in 1921.
Bardoli Satyagraha Area: Bardoli - Gujarat Year: 1927 Leader: Vallabhbhai patel	Enhancement of the land revenue by 22% even though cutton prices had declined	Govt. tried to suppress the govt. Maxwell Broomfield enquiry Committee set up Govt. which admitted Bardoli assessment was Faulty and enhancement was Cut down.
All India Kisan Congress Area: Lucknow Year: 1936 Leader: Presided over by Swami Shajanand	Against moneylenders, Zamindars, traders & Govt.	A Kisan manifesto was adopted in Bombay session in 1937
Tebhaga movement Area: Bengal Year: 1946 Leader: Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha	By the sharecroppers against the Jotedar’s demand of ½ share of crop instead of 1/3 share	In 1950 congress passed Bargadar’s Bill
Bakasht Land Struggle Area: Bihar Year: 1938-47 Leader: Karyanand Sharma; Yadunandan Sharma, Jauna Karjee, Rahul Sanskritayana	Bakasht lands were those lands which tenants had lost to zamindars during depression years by virtue of non- payment of rent which they continued to cultivate as sharecroppers	The movement continued till the zamindari was abolished.

Tribal Movements of 19th and 20th Century

Name of the Tribe	Course and consequence of revolt
Chuars Area : Nanbhum and Barabhum (West Bengal) Year: 1766-68 Leader: Not available	Defiance of British authority by Chuars; suppression of the Revolt by British through use of force as well as conciliatory measures
Bhils Area : Khandesh Year: 1818-48	Beginning of revolt of Bhils with British occupation of Khandesh (1818) and their defiance of British for 30 years; final suppression through military operations combined with conciliatory measures.
Bhils Area : Shinghbum and Chhota Nagpur Year: 1820, 1822 & 1832	Occupation of Singhbhum by British and revolt of the Hos (1820); its suppression after extensive military operations; they revolt again in 1832.
Kolis Area : Sahyadri Hills (Gujrat and Maharashtra) Year: 1824,1828,1839 & 1844-48	Repeated revolts of Kalis and their final suppression after the capture of all their leaders.
Khasis Area: Khasi Hills (Assam & Meghalaya) Year: 1829-32 Leader: Tirut Singh and Bar Manik (Chiefs of Nounklow & Molim respectively)	Unsuccessful attempts of the Khasis to drive. away the British from their territory; surrender of all Khasi chiefs, including Tirut Singh, to the British in 1832.
Singphos Area: Assam Year: 1830-39	Suppression of 1830 revolt by Captain Neufville; murder of Colonel-White (British Political Agent of Assam) by Singphos in 1839 but their ultimate defeat by British
Kols Area : Chhota Nagpur Year: 1831-32 Leader: Buddho Bhagat , Ganga Narayan	Suppression of the revolt after extensive military operations of British and death of Bhagat
Koyas Area : Rampa Region (Chodavarm in Andhra Pradesh) Year: 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861-62, 1879-80, 1922-24 Leader: Alluri Sitaramaraju (1922-24)	Repeated revolts of the Koyas, the major ones being the 1879-80 and 1922-24 revolts; capture and execution of Raju by British in May 1924.
Khonds Area : Khondmals (Orrisa) Year: 1846-48, 1855 and 1914 Leader: Chakra Bisayi	The first two revolts, led by Bisayi,were put down with great difficulty by the British.
Santhals Area : Rajmahal Hills (Bihar) Year: 1855-56 Leader: Sidhu & Kanhu	Revolt of Santhals and establishment of their own government (July, 1855); defeat of British under Major Burrogh by Santhals; transfer of the disturbed area to the military and final suppression of the revolt by the end of 1856; Inhabited areas were constituted into a separate administrative unit, called the Santhal Parganas, which recognised distinctiveness of their tribal culture and identity. Creation of a separate district of Santhal Paraganas (under Santhal Paraganas Tenancy Act 1876 ) to prevent Santhals from revolting again in future. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal. Hence laws were enacted so that the land of tribals could not be taken by outsiders (dikus).
Naikdas Area : Panch Mahals (Gujarat) Year: 1858-59 & 1868 Leader: Rupsingh and Joria Bhagat	Revolt of Naikdas under Rupsingh in 1858 and conclusion of peace between British Rupsingh in 1859; their revolt again in 1868, and establishment of a kingdom with Joria as the spiritual head of Rupsingh as temporal head; suppression of the revolt after the capture and execution of Rupsingh and Joria.
Kacha Nagas Area : Cacher (Assam) Year: 1882 Leader: Sambhudhan	-----
Mundas Area : Chhota Nagpur Year: 1899-1900 Leader: Birsa Munda	Foundation of new religious sect, with Singh Bonga as the only true god, but Birsa (1895); - British fears over Birsa's preachings among Mundas, and arrest and imprisonment of Birsa (1895-97); release of Birsa and revival of his doctrine (1898); revolt of Mundas and their attack of churches and police stations (1899); defeat of Mundas by British (Jan, 1900) and capture of Birsa (he died of cholera in jail in June 1900).
Bhils Area : Banswara and Dungapur (southern Rajasthan) Year: 1913Leader: Govind Guru	It began as a purification movement, but later developed into a political movement; failure of their attempts to set up a Bhil Raj due to British armed intervention.
Oraons Area : Chhota Nagpur Year: 1914-15 Leader: Jatra Bhagat	Launching of a monotheistic movement by Jatra in 1914 andits transformation into a radical political movement to drive away the British in 1915; its suppression by British through repressive measures.
Tana Bhagat Movement Area : Chotanagpur, Jharkhand Year: 1918	Adivasis threatened nonpayment of the Chowikidari tax and rent during Non Cooperation movt.
Thadoe Kukis Area: Manipur Year: 1917-19 Leader: Jadonang and his neice Rani Gaidinliu	Their rebellion and guerrilla war against British for two years.
Chenchus Area: Nallamala Hills (Andhra Pradesh) Year: 1921-22 Leader: Hanumanthu	Their revolt against increasing British control over forests.

Ho Uprising 1820 : In Chhota Nagpur region of Bengal due to alienation of Lands and changes in society against Money lenders , British.

Ramoshi Revolt 1877-78 under Vasudev Balwant Phadke

A revolt was led by Vasudev Balwant Phadke in 1877-78 in the Vashi & Panvel area of Maharashtra.
Phadke is known as “ Father of the armed struggle for India’s independence ”.
He created a group called Ramoshi (also described as the Bedar) which was the group of Ramoshis, Kolis, Bhils and Dhangars communities in Maharashtra and the actually the “organized political dacoits“.
He was captured and imprisoned in 1879 and died in 1883.
Ramoshi Peasants revolted against atrocities given by Zamindars.

Tasawwuf :

is another name for Sufism, as it is known in the Muslim world.
In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God by sense of perception.
While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct and rituals, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
According to them one must have the guidance of a pir or guru, without which spiritual development is impossible.

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